The lowland tropical rainforests of South-east Asia are complex ecosystems best known for their evergreen forests dominated by the towering dipterocarp trees and unique wildlife. The rainforests are among the most threatened ecosystems on the planet due to climate change, deforestation, logging and agriculture. Many key areas of South-east Asia are also located on the tectonically active Pacific Ring of Fire, which consists of a ‘ring’ of active volcanoes. Volcanic eruptions can be explosive, caused by pressure that has built up over time sending ash, rock and gas into the atmosphere. These eruptions can have an immediate destructive impact on the surrounding environment, negatively affecting forest systems; however, volcanic ash also contains nutrients such as phosphorus, which is essential for plant growth and productivity.  

Ancient environmental DNA

To understand the response and recovery of these tropical forest systems after a volcanic event, I am using lake-sediment cores to explore past records of volcanic activity and forest productivity.  

Lakes act like stores of environmental information, as the sediments found on lake floors are composed of organic and inorganic materials that have accumulated over time. These sediments can provide insights into past nutrient dynamics through geochemical analysis. By extracting ancient environmental DNA (aeDNA), which is genetic material derived from plant material and cells from animals and microorganisms, we can discover how forest biomes have responded to environmental change over time.  

Ancient environmental DNA is typically highly degraded, vulnerable to hydrolysis and oxidation, and easily contaminated by modern DNA. It is therefore crucial to work in a clean environment where the risk of contaminating the samples is minimal.  

Sample handling 

Before splitting the lake sediment core and subsamples for aeDNA extraction, it was first radiographically scanned at the Core Scanning Facility at the BGS campus in Keyworth, Nottinghamshire. Radiographic scanning was also carried out to identify past volcanic events without opening the core, to avoid any potential contamination. I then travelled with the lake sediment core from BGS to the Globe Institute, part of the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences of the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, which specialises in geogenetics, for aeDNA extraction. 

The institute is located in the heart of Denmark capital city. It is surrounded by the Botanical Garden, the National Gallery for Arts, and the King Garden, where Rosenborg Castle is located. On arrival, you are met by one of the largest iron meteorites in the world, before entering the Centre for Geogenetics, where the clean aeDNA laboratories are.  

A strict protocol must be followed to avoid any form of modern contamination when working in these laboratories. This includes wearing a full protective outfit consisting of a hazmat suit, face mask, gloves, overshoes, extra protective sleeves and an extra pair of gloves. After suiting up for working the in laboratory, everything must be cleaned in bleach (and washed in ethanol afterwards). The selected samples and all laboratory equipment are then placed in a special clean fume hood, where the aeDNA can be extracted and prepared for sequencing.  

The core was not cut open until it arrived at the Globe Institute, where aeDNA samples were taken at 1 cm intervals using sterile syringes. The samples were taken from intervals pre-eruption, right after the eruption, and several intervals post-eruption, to help understand the forest system response to volcanic events. The selected samples were incubated overnight and purified the next day, after which the concentration was measured. Finally, the samples went through another preparation process, the crucial step that converts raw DNA into a library of adapter-ligated, standardised fragments that have been amplified to ensure enough copies are available for genetic sequencing.  

Next steps 

While the prepared DNA samples are awaiting sequencing, the final work for geochemical analysis and stable isotopes measurements is being completed at BGS laboratories back in Keyworth. These analyses will help explore the history of past nutrient inputs from volcanic events and improve our understanding of how such inputs influence the tropical rainforest system.  

Copenhagen, Denmark 

From working intensely in the laboratories to exploring the city surrounding the Globe Institute, I enjoyed my time in Copenhagen. It a vibrant city known for its blend of historic charm and modern design, exceptional cycling culture and world-class food. The city offers attractions like Tivoli Gardens, Amalienborg Slot (the royal castle), Nyhavn and Free Town Christiania, which are, in my opinion, places you must see while walking around with a Ristet med det hele (a hot dog with the works) and a cocio (Danish chocolate milk). And of course, you can never go wrong by entering one of the many bakeries to make the impossible decision of which pastry to choose… 

Thanks 

A big thank you goes to Dr Ana Prohaska for hosting me at the Globe Institute, training me in new skills in molecular biology, and giving me the tools to help me understand the processes of the work. Another big thanks must go to the rest of the team at the Globe Institute for making me feel a part of the group, even though I was only there for a short amount of time.  

Volcán de Fuego in Guatemala is one of the most active volcanoes in the world. Its frequent eruptions are spectacular to watch, but they also gradually build steep deposits of ash and lava fragments on its flanks. From time to time, this material becomes unstable and collapses, sending hot flows known as pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) often 5 to 10Ìýkm, sometimes more than 10Ìýkm, down the slopes of the volcano.

While eruptions at Fuego are closely monitored, these collapse-generated flows remain less understood. Our project, funded through a NERC Urgency Grant, is a collaboration between Guatemalan scientists, local institutions and international partners to investigate the timing and monitoring of these collapses.

Fieldwork in the rainy season

This project focuses on the 9 to10 March 2025 eruption, which generated PDCs with runouts exceeding 6Ìýkm. In August 2025, we travelled to Fuego to study the deposits left behind. Our work combined field mapping and sampling with drone surveys and satellite imagery, but this was a race against time: Guatemala rainy season quickly erodes the evidence.

Our main study site was the Ceniza ravine, a valley that channels many of Fuego flows. Using satellite images, we identified deposits from the March 2025 eruption. On the ground, we confirmed a few intact outcrops, which were unconsolidated and, months after the eruption, still hot.

Reading magnetic fingerprints

To understand these deposits better, we collected samples for particle-size analysis and geomagnetic thermal proxy analysis. This technique uses tiny magnetic minerals that are naturally present in rocks. When heated, their magnetic orientation resets to align with the Earth magnetic field and, once cooled, the orientation becomes locked in, like a tiny compass needle frozen in place. By measuring the magnetism of our samples, we can tell whether particles were hot when they came to rest. If they all point the same way, the deposits came directly from the eruption column. If the directions are random, the material had cooled long before and was likely part of older piles that later collapsed.

Geomagnetism therefore lets us trace the provenance of the material — whether it was born in the eruption or destabilised from older accumulations. This is crucial for hazard assessment, since collapses of stored flank material can generate larger flows than those expected from eruption size alone.

Drones and 3D models

Another key part of our work involved flying high-resolution drones along the flanks of the volcano to produce detailed 3D models of the ravines. Together with satellite imagery, these allow us to measure how much material is stored on the volcano and how this material changes over time. By repeating the surveys, we will be able to build a timeline of how volcanic material accumulates and when it becomes unstable.

Next steps

Back in the UK and with our partners abroad, we are now analysing the samples and drone data. Geomagnetic measurements and remote sensing data will allow us to extend our observations back in time. Together, these results will help us understand how much material can safely accumulate on Fuego flanks before it becomes unstable.

Ultimately, our aim is to develop a monitoring framework for these deposits, so that future collapses and the potential runout of associated PDCs can be anticipated more effectively. Although our focus is Volcán de Fuego, the same processes occur at other active volcanoes around the world, from Etna in Italy to Fuji in Japan.

While in Guatemala…

Guatemala is a spectacular country with volcanoes always on the horizon. We spent our nights after work at the Fuego observatory, where we could watch the volcano — and it put a show up for us! Playing football on the local pitch with the volcano in the background was also a highlight of our evenings.Ìý

It was a privilege to spend time with our Guatemalan colleagues and learn from their experiences of living alongside active volcanoes. Field days were demanding, often cut short by weather, but what more could a volcanologist want than to discuss volcanic processes as they unfold in front of you, with delicious food and the country famously strong coffee to end the day?

A collaborative project

The fieldwork was a collaboration between:

• 51ÁÔÆæ
• University of Edinburgh
• University of South Florida (USA)
• Institute for Scientific and Technological Research of San Luis Potos (Mexico)
• National Institute for Seismology, Vulcanology, Meteorology and Hydrology (INSIVUMEH, Guatemala national monitoring institute)
• Coordinating Agency for Disaster Reduction (CONRED, the national civil protection agency)

The project also includes colleagues from the University of Liverpool and Michigan Technological University (USA).

The monitoring carried out by INSIVUMEH was essential for managing risks during our campaign, especially afternoon rainstorms that often trigger lahars (volcanic mudflows) in our study area. Their expertise and guidance, based on daily experience working on Fuego, allowed the team operate safely in the field.

About the author

The lowland rainforests of south-east Asia are renowned for their exceptional biodiversity but are among the most threatened ecosystems on Earth. Mass flowering events in lowland tropical rainforests are generally triggered by environmental cues, particularly climatic changes such as drought or temperature fluctuations. However, there is increasing evidence that nutrient availability, particularly phosphorus, may also play a critical role in regulating these events and, through them, forest development. Phosphorus is an essential macronutrient for plant growth and productivity, but it is often a limited nutrient in tropical rainforest soils, which are highly weathered and nutrient poor.

In lakes, particles from a diverse range of inorganic, organic and biogenic detritus and volcanic ash can settle through the water column and onto the lake floor. Over time, layers of particles accumulate that can contain a wealth of information about the past environmental conditions in the lake and its watershed. My research aims to answer fundamental questions about how concentrations of essential nutrients, particularly phosphorus, derived from volcanic ash affect tropical forest composition, structure and flowering dynamics. In May 2025, I conducted a two-week fieldtrip to collect lake sediment cores and fresh soil and water samples at the Bulusan Volcano Natural Park, Sorsogon Province, Philippines.  

Lake Bulusan

Bulusan Volcano Natural Park is located in Sorsogon Province, Philippines, and stretches over 3673 hectares. It was first designated as a National Park in 1935. It consists of mixed forests, giant ferns and other plant species including ground orchids. Lake Bulusan itself is a 0.28 km² lake lying at the foothills of Mt Bulusan and has no inlets or outlets; instead it comprises a closed system fed primarily by precipitation and groundwater. The lake location and its ability to catch volcanic ash from volcanic eruptions over time makes it the perfect study site for my PhD project.

Fieldtrip

Conducting the fieldwork in the Philippines was not without challenges. Firstly, all necessary agreements and permits needed to be in place beforehand; this process was carried out during the first 15 months of the PhD project. In the week leading up to the trip, the volcano, which is located close to the fieldtrip site, erupted briefly and put the whole fieldtrip in jeopardy. Luckily the eruption did not cause any danger to the public or surrounding areas.

Our first stop was Manila, where the correct wildlife permit was provided by the Department of the Environment and Natural Resources — Biodiversity Management Bureau (DENR-BMB) to allow us to collect the samples. We then travelled down to Sorsogon Province, where we met up with our local collaborator Dr Ellen Funesto (University of the Philippines — Cebu) and lake coring expert Dr Wes Farnsworth (University of Iceland). After a day of recovery, the team headed into the Bulusan Volcano Natural Park to access Lake Bulusan for lake coring and sampling activities.

The lake coring was done on a semi-luxury 4 Ã— 3 m raft equipped with a table to sit at and an umbrella for shade, and we were assisted by six local fishermen who were all interested in the research and lake coring processes. Two local guides also helped the team navigate around the lake and through the forest, finding the best spots to collect fresh soil samples from the forest surrounding the lake.

Learning about the culture

As we collected samples, we also had time to enjoy some of the Filipino cuisine. With recommendations from our local collaborator, we tasted a range of dishes that are must-tries (at least in our opinion!) when visiting the Philippines, ranging from local fish bangus, through pork sisig to chicken teriyaki from the local chicken shop.

Additionally, the Philippines’ landscape offers scenery unlike anything I have seen before:  beautiful beaches, waterfalls, volcanoes and forest. Beyond the incredible food and stunning environment, the local people in the rural parts of the Philippines are some of the friendliest people I have met. They were welcoming and those who joined us on site to collect samples brought joy to the fieldwork at the natural park.

Next steps

The samples are now back at the BGS headquarters in Keyworth and, over the next few months, we plan to explore the palaeo-nutrient histories hidden within the lake sediments, using core scanning alongside geochemical and stable isotope methods. In addition, there will be a trip to the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, later this year to extract ancient environmental DNA, which will help us understand how nutrient inputs from volcanic ash affect the tropical rainforest system.

Thanks

Thanks to our collaborators Dr Ellen Funesto and Dr Wes Farnsworth; without your assistance and expertise to the team the fieldwork would not have been possible. A special thanks also goes to Eleanor Lacsi De La Cruz from the Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office (PENRO), who was on site all day and worked hard in both helping coring and securing all the necessary permits to export the samples back to Keyworth.

The work would not have been possible without the support of a huge number of people, especially the DENR-BMB, PENRO and DENR regional offices who issued the permits and have supported the project over the last two years.

About the author

Christopher Bengt is a second-year PhD student enrolled at Lancaster University. His PhD is funded through the Envision Doctoral Training Partnership and the BGS University Funding Initiative.

In September 2024, I attended the (EMIW). This biennial meeting is held by the (IAGA) Division VI, a vibrant geophysics community that uses electromagnetic (EM) methods to look deep into the Earth (and sometimes beyond). Ìý

About EMIW 

EMIW is organised by the national EM geophysics communities. The very first workshop was held in Edinburgh in 1972, when Rosemary Hutton (a trailblazer for EM research and women in geophysics) was a lecturer at the University of Edinburgh. Since then, the meeting has taken place every other year all over the globe. The conference is the stage for EM geophysicists to exchange their ideas, present their newest research and form vital relationships, as well as find potential new project partners and sometimes the next science job as well!  

EMIW in Japan 

This year, it was the large Japanese EM geophysics community that hosted the workshop. In Japan, geophysics is so important because of all the natural hazards present: earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides and tsunamis. Befittingly, Beppu on the island of Kyushu was chosen as the workshop venue; Beppu is famous for its hot springs, also called ‘Beppu hells’! Most hotels in town have traditional hot baths (‘onsen’) and mine was on the rooftop with views over the ocean. Unfortunately, the daytime temperature in Japan reached 35°C every day, which was not very conducive to hot baths.  

The conference included nine sessions and various review talks. I convened a session on EM monitoring of geohazards, which is a broad theme where our work at BGS to assess space-weather effects fits right in alongside volcano monitoring, changing glaciers, landslides and tsunamis. Other sessions covered more fundamental topics such as instrumentation, data acquisition, processing, modelling and inversions, as well as application areas like resource exploration. There were also specific sessions on airborne, marine and extraterrestrial EM, including a very interesting review talk on EM geophysics on other planetary bodies in NASA/ESA missions. Volcanoes in Japan and on other islands were a prominent topic, as was geothermal research.  

Visiting Mount Aso 

An excursion on the third day of the conference is a staple in the EMIW tradition. Many scientists will agree that the third day of a conference is when everyone gets tired and overwhelmed by all the exciting chat and talks and new ideas swirling around, so a day out in the field provides a great alternative way of understanding key ideas. In Beppu, several excursion options were available to the conference participants. I had signed up to the popular trip to visit , a volcano located in the centre of Kyushu.  

Firstly, we visited the Shinto shrine where locals and guests honour the mountain. The volcano is located in one of the largest calderas in the world and is one of the most active, with its last eruption in 2021. The volcano is very well monitored and the visitor sites have emergency shelters, so we felt very safe visiting the rim of the crater lake.  

Back to the workshop 

Back in Beppu, the workshop continued for another three days. The final day closed with a big gala dinner, where Japanese delicacies and traditional sake (a clear rice wine) were served. A smaller group of fellow scientists finished the conference with a round of karaoke before saying our goodbyes. Next time we’ll convene in 2026, in St John,  Canada. 

About the author

I’m Catriona Macdonald from the 51ÁÔÆæ Marine Survey team. My colleague Rhys Cooper and I recently returned from fieldwork on Ascension Island, a remote volcanic island in the South Atlantic Ocean. The reason for our visit was to complete a marine survey of the nearshore waters within the Ascension Island Marine Protected Area (MPA), one of the largest MPAs in the world.  The survey is part of the first stage of a project funded by the UK Government through to map the seabed and nearshore habitats within the MPA.

Working with the Ascension Island Government (AIG) marine conservation team, we acquired new, high-resolution bathymetry data in specific nearshore areas around the island as part of an integrated programme of marine surveys. The data will be used to produce the first geomorphology, substrate and habitat maps of the MPA. These will help to inform better management and monitoring of the marine environment, as well as enhancing our geological understanding of the sea floor around Ascension.

Completing a marine survey at the best of times can be extremely difficult, but, given the remoteness of Ascension Island, this project presented its own unique set of challenges. To get to Ascension, we had to travel down from Edinburgh to RAF Brize Norton, Oxfordshire, and fly overnight on the ‘South Atlantic airbridge’, which stops at Ascension for refuelling before continuing to the Falkland Islands. Thankfully, the flight now goes directly to Ascension: major repair work on the island runway led to the suspension of airbridge flights in 2017, meaning that the flights were diverted via Cape Verde. The runway opened again in 2022.

Chief surveyor Rhys considered several boat options before settling on a RIB-mounted system to complete the survey. The solution was ideal for surveying in shallow, nearshore waters, but it meant that the working conditions were challenging due to the size of the boat, the amount of survey equipment on board and the limited cover from the elements.

The food supply on Ascension is limited and depends on supplies that are flown to the island. However, we made good use of the fresh produce from the local hydroponics laboratory, which opened in 2016 and sells leafy crops, tomatoes and potatoes in the local shops. On our last weekend, our hosts from AIG took fishing rods out on the boat and at the end of the day we had a go at fishing. I was lucky enough to catch a yellowfin tuna, which meant we ate very well over the last few days!

Ascension amazing landscape and wildlife made the trip more than worthwhile. Over the course of our trip, we completed many of the hiking trails around the island. We even managed to source some (very old) golf clubs to have a go at the infamous One Boat Golf Club, which is sometimes playfully referred to  as the ‘world worst golf course’. The team will return to the island in January 2024 to collect seabed samples and participate in outreach activities for local government and community groups living on the island. 

This project is funded by the UK Government through .

On 30 October 2023, BGS project manager and senior surveyor Rhys Cooper and marine geoscientist Catriona Macdonald took the 4000-mile journey to Ascension Island, an isolated volcanic island in the Atlantic Ocean, to undertake the first stage of a UK Government-funded project.

In 2019, BGS was awarded funding from the UK Government through , a grant scheme by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) that funds projects aiming to protect unique biodiversity and improve resilience to climate change within the UK Overseas Territories. Following a four-year delay due to COVID-19, the project is now underway. The first expedition focused on mapping the shallow waters surrounding Ascension Island, including an area of the island that has never been mapped or surveyed before.

Working with the Ascension Island Government, this BGS-led project will determine the character, distribution and extent of the nearshore habitats of the Ascension Island Marine Protected Area (AI-MPA) through an integrated programme of surveys. The AI-MPA is rich in biodiversity; however, protected areas such as this are most at risk from anthropogenic development and climate change.

Resulting sea-floor habitat maps will provide the Ascension Island Government with urgently needed tools to better monitor and protect marine ecosystems, as well as underpin the evidence-based management of the AI-MPA. The data will be merged with an existing dataset collected by the Royal Navy UK Hydrographic Office (UKHO) in 2021, which has already enabled the deployment of an array of sensors to monitor the movement of sharks. The combined datasets will also allow the first detailed geomorphology, substrate and habitat maps to be produced for the island, down to a maximum depth of 1000 m.

Ascension Island is a remote location and therefore presents many unique challenges that need to be overcome if we are to be successful. We have had numerous delays that proved fortuitous: the Royal Navy completed a survey around Ascension Island during COVID-19 lockdowns, which significantly reduced the amount of data we needed to collect, lowering costs and enabling us to refine and focus our survey campaigns.

The Ascension Island Government owns a boat that was made available to the project. This simplified logistics but required a totally different methodology for deploying the survey equipment. An appropriate solution was found and trialled in the UK before shipping the equipment to Ascension Island. This ‘warm-up’ survey allowed us to check it worked, was safe to operate and ensured we had all the equipment needed.

Rhys Cooper, project manager and senior surveyor.

The team is set to return to Ascension Island in January 2024 to complete the next stage of the project, which will focus on seabed sampling. A high-definition drop camera with laser scaling will be deployed to enable accurate mapping of the sea floor. The project is expected to be completed in April 2024.

This project is funded by the UK Government through .

I have recently returned from a couple of weeks of fieldwork on Mount St Helens volcano in the Cascades, US, with Julia Eychenne from Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans (LMV) Volcanology, France and David Damby from the United States Geological Survey, and in collaboration with the Cascades Volcano Obervatory. The focus of our fieldwork was the , which produced the largest debris avalanche in recorded history as much of the northern flank of the volcano was removed. This avalanche led to a powerful blast which stripped much of the surrounding area of trees and produced a plume of ash that lofted to more than 30 km above sea level. Ash was dispersed many hundreds of kilometres away from the volcano. Plinian plumes, pyroclastic density currents and lahars (mixtures of volcanic material and water) followed and continued over the following months.

Given the scale and the range of eruptive behaviour that occurred during this eruption, it presents a case study that enables scientific investigation from a range of perspectives. Across our field team, interests ranged from eruption dynamics, human health impacts and ash resuspension. We dug holes through the deposits to allow us to access the whole sequence of the eruption, collecting blast samples and ash deposits from several locations across the blast area.

While we initially focused on the 18 May 1980 blast deposits, a day in the field with Cascades Volcano Observatory scientist Heather Wright introduced us to deposits from several older eruptions from Mount St Helens which also piqued our interest.

Over the coming months, the team will conduct geophysical and chemical analyses to improve understanding of the deposits, providing further insights into the eruption.

The fieldwork was made possible through collaboration with Cascades Volcano Observatory. Many thanks to Alexa Van Eaton, Heather Wright and Richard Waitt for providing lots of context on the eruption, deposits and field relationships, and ensuring we had a great trip!

About author

The tsunami from Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano in Tonga on 15 January 2022 was the first from a violent eruption for over 130 years, the last being the Krakatau volcanic eruption in Indonesia in 1883. Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai was also the first dual eruption tsunami since the Krakatau event and the first recorded by modern technology. The resulting shockwave was the most significant ever recorded and the volcano plume was the highest on record.

The Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai event was comparable to the Papua New Guinea submarine landslide tsunamis of 1998, which resulted in 2200 fatalities, and the Indian Ocean earthquake tsunami of 2004 when over 250 000 people died. Although the mechanisms are different, all identify a previously unrecognised tsunami hazard. The Papua New Guinea submarine landslide generated massively destructive tsunamis, while the Indian Ocean event saw great-magnitude earthquake tsunamis striking along convergent margins outside the Pacific Ocean.

Volcanic activity along the Tonga convergent margin is not unexpected. Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai last erupted in 2015, but the magnitude and violence of the 2022 eruption was a complete surprise. The unexpected nature of the eruption reveals that the global hazard from large volume volcanic eruptions is underestimated and identifies a global unpreparedness for the effects of these events.

Globally, there are 42 volcanoes with the potential to erupt on a similar scale to Krakatau and Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai, so the events of 15 January 2022 should serve as a wake-up call to the potential hazards from other violent eruptions. Many of these volcanoes, unlike Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai, are close to high-density coastal populations.

So far there has been little published on the eruption or on local tsunami mechanisms. Over one hundred papers on the event have been published, but most focus on the satellite data recordings of the atmospheric disturbances generated from the shockwave, and ‘far field’ tsunamis. Both were due to changes in atmospheric pressure on the ocean surface, which initially generated small waves that increased through a process called ‘resonance’, which is determined by the relationship between the speed of the shockwave and the speed of the tsunami.

There are still fewer papers on the local, or near, tsunamis. The mechanism of these is still uncertain. There are several possibilities as to what generated these tsunamis, including collapsing pyroclastic density currents, caldera collapse and phreatomagmatic explosions, where magma interacts with sea water.

One fear from the eruption was an effect on climate, possibly from sulphur dioxide (SO₂), but measurements showed that SO₂ was quite low in volume. More surprisingly was the volume of water pumped into the atmosphere; recent research shows this to be a high volume that could possibly affect the climate.

Regarding the wake-up call from the effects of the event, so far there has been little reaction. This could be attributed to the volume of unpublished papers (such as sea-bed mapping of the area). These as-yet unpublished papers could well affect the uncertainty over the local tsunami mechanism. The source of the cataclysmic culminating explosion is also yet to be determined, whether it was mixing of magmas beneath the caldera or the entry of cold water into the edifice during the final phase.

There is still much research to do and many lessons to take from the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai eruption and following events, but once the results are in, hopefully the real mitigation work will begin.

Further reading

• Cassidy, M, and Mani, L. 2022. . Nature, Vol. 608, 469–471. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-02177-x
• Lynett, P, et al. 2022. . Nature, Vol. 609, 728–733. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05170-6
• Newhall, C, Self, S, and Robock, A. 2018. . Geosphere, Vol. 14(2), 572–603. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1130/GES01513.1
• Witze, A. 2022. . Nature, Vol. 602, 376–378. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-00394-y

About the author