Soil reference materials (RMs) are critical to ensuring the accuracy and consistency of analytical results across laboratories and research institutions. BGS has produced ten new soil RMs, which have been developed by its inorganic geochemistry team to offer a cost-effective alternative to traditional certified reference materials (CRMs), while maintaining confidence in analytical data. The RMs have been released at a lower price point to help improve access to high-quality materials for researchers and laboratories with limited budgets, enabling them to enhance measurement controls and increase confidence in analytical results across a variety of sectors worldwide. 

Developed from a broad selection of parent materials and incorporating a diverse range of textures and organic carbon contents, reference soils BGS110 to BGS119 have each been characterised by a select group of international laboratories using a variety of analytical techniques. The RMs are also accompanied by data sheets that include for 64 major, minor and trace elements, including rarely measured bromine and iodine. More information about the ten new RMs can also be found in the new report, .

Reference materials are the backbone of geochemical analysis, providing confidence in the measurements that a laboratory produces. Our RMs offer reliable benchmarks for analysing samples with similar matrices. Due to their diverse concentrations of economically and environmentally significant elements, these RMs will enable laboratories, PhDÌýresearchers and industry professionals to calibrate instruments, validate analytical methods and ensure data comparability across studies.

Dr Michael Watts, head of BGS Inorganic Geochemistry.

51ÁÔÆæ now has 18 soil RMs (including one for use in and seven for the analysis of ) and five mineral RMs available for purchase through its website.

The inorganic geochemistry team also remains actively engaged in global initiatives to harmonise soil analytical data across laboratories. These efforts support enhanced health outcomes and food security worldwide. BGS produces custom proficiency testing (PT) materials for international PT schemes coordinated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations’ (GLOSOLAN). As part of its collaboration with the FAO-UN and other organisations, BGS has delivered laboratory training around the world, including guidance on producing RMs and PT samples. A free, publicly available is accessible via the GLOSOLAN website.

In addition, BGS prepares geological PT samples and CRMs for a number of commercial distributors, supporting both UK and international PT schemes.

To place an order or for more information on our bespoke RM and PT preparation services, please contact the inorganic geochemistry team (inorganicgeochemistry@bgs.ac.uk). (Gamma irradiated soil RMs are available on request for shipping internationally.)

The lowland rainforests of south-east Asia are renowned for their exceptional biodiversity but are among the most threatened ecosystems on Earth. Mass flowering events in lowland tropical rainforests are generally triggered by environmental cues, particularly climatic changes such as drought or temperature fluctuations. However, there is increasing evidence that nutrient availability, particularly phosphorus, may also play a critical role in regulating these events and, through them, forest development. Phosphorus is an essential macronutrient for plant growth and productivity, but it is often a limited nutrient in tropical rainforest soils, which are highly weathered and nutrient poor.

In lakes, particles from a diverse range of inorganic, organic and biogenic detritus and volcanic ash can settle through the water column and onto the lake floor. Over time, layers of particles accumulate that can contain a wealth of information about the past environmental conditions in the lake and its watershed. My research aims to answer fundamental questions about how concentrations of essential nutrients, particularly phosphorus, derived from volcanic ash affect tropical forest composition, structure and flowering dynamics. In May 2025, I conducted a two-week fieldtrip to collect lake sediment cores and fresh soil and water samples at the Bulusan Volcano Natural Park, Sorsogon Province, Philippines.  

Lake Bulusan

Bulusan Volcano Natural Park is located in Sorsogon Province, Philippines, and stretches over 3673 hectares. It was first designated as a National Park in 1935. It consists of mixed forests, giant ferns and other plant species including ground orchids. Lake Bulusan itself is a 0.28 km² lake lying at the foothills of Mt Bulusan and has no inlets or outlets; instead it comprises a closed system fed primarily by precipitation and groundwater. The lake location and its ability to catch volcanic ash from volcanic eruptions over time makes it the perfect study site for my PhD project.

Fieldtrip

Conducting the fieldwork in the Philippines was not without challenges. Firstly, all necessary agreements and permits needed to be in place beforehand; this process was carried out during the first 15 months of the PhD project. In the week leading up to the trip, the volcano, which is located close to the fieldtrip site, erupted briefly and put the whole fieldtrip in jeopardy. Luckily the eruption did not cause any danger to the public or surrounding areas.

Our first stop was Manila, where the correct wildlife permit was provided by the Department of the Environment and Natural Resources — Biodiversity Management Bureau (DENR-BMB) to allow us to collect the samples. We then travelled down to Sorsogon Province, where we met up with our local collaborator Dr Ellen Funesto (University of the Philippines — Cebu) and lake coring expert Dr Wes Farnsworth (University of Iceland). After a day of recovery, the team headed into the Bulusan Volcano Natural Park to access Lake Bulusan for lake coring and sampling activities.

The lake coring was done on a semi-luxury 4 Ã— 3 m raft equipped with a table to sit at and an umbrella for shade, and we were assisted by six local fishermen who were all interested in the research and lake coring processes. Two local guides also helped the team navigate around the lake and through the forest, finding the best spots to collect fresh soil samples from the forest surrounding the lake.

Learning about the culture

As we collected samples, we also had time to enjoy some of the Filipino cuisine. With recommendations from our local collaborator, we tasted a range of dishes that are must-tries (at least in our opinion!) when visiting the Philippines, ranging from local fish bangus, through pork sisig to chicken teriyaki from the local chicken shop.

Additionally, the Philippines’ landscape offers scenery unlike anything I have seen before:  beautiful beaches, waterfalls, volcanoes and forest. Beyond the incredible food and stunning environment, the local people in the rural parts of the Philippines are some of the friendliest people I have met. They were welcoming and those who joined us on site to collect samples brought joy to the fieldwork at the natural park.

Next steps

The samples are now back at the BGS headquarters in Keyworth and, over the next few months, we plan to explore the palaeo-nutrient histories hidden within the lake sediments, using core scanning alongside geochemical and stable isotope methods. In addition, there will be a trip to the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, later this year to extract ancient environmental DNA, which will help us understand how nutrient inputs from volcanic ash affect the tropical rainforest system.

Thanks

Thanks to our collaborators Dr Ellen Funesto and Dr Wes Farnsworth; without your assistance and expertise to the team the fieldwork would not have been possible. A special thanks also goes to Eleanor Lacsi De La Cruz from the Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Office (PENRO), who was on site all day and worked hard in both helping coring and securing all the necessary permits to export the samples back to Keyworth.

The work would not have been possible without the support of a huge number of people, especially the DENR-BMB, PENRO and DENR regional offices who issued the permits and have supported the project over the last two years.

About the author

Christopher Bengt is a second-year PhD student enrolled at Lancaster University. His PhD is funded through the Envision Doctoral Training Partnership and the BGS University Funding Initiative.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are known as ‘forever chemicals’ due to their durability and widespread presence in the environment. Some PFAS are known to have adverse impacts on human health and the environment if concentrations are present above specific thresholds.

A new , co-authored by BGS and the Environment Agency, has revealed data around the presence of PFAS in shallow English soils that will allow scientists to better understand background concentrations. The Environment Agency commissioned the study to assess the feasibility and suitability of using archived samples at BGS to support the analysis of contemporary samples. This is part of a larger programme of work to improve understanding of the anthropogenic background concentrations of PFAS in shallow soils in England.

The results found PFAS to be present in all new and archived samples, with PFAS concentrations generally being higher in the contemporary samples. It is too early to determine if this is a result of a genuine increase in concentrations or another factor, such as the degradation of samples over time. The research does confirm the presence of these substances over this timescale, but does not attempt to assess any potential risks to human health or the environment.

Our research reveals that PFAS are widespread and persistent in the natural soils we sampled in England, which highlights the need for a comprehensive national survey. Investigating the presence and distribution of the background concentrations of artificial chemicals such as PFAS in soil is a key part of creating shared independent evidence that informs the risks they pose to people and the environment.

This study is a great example of how BGS uses its independent expertise to collaborate with Government and its agencies to create new geoscientific information and data on chemicals in soils.

Dr Darren Beriro, BGS Principal Geoscientist.

The global science on PFAS is evolving rapidly and we are working with partners, including BGS, to better understand their prevalence in our environment.

Though ongoing research is needed, the results of this study are useful for understanding how these chemicals may degrade over time.

We continue to test for PFAS in the environment, including regular testing for more than 50 different PFAS in water, and we work closely with several partners, including local authorities, to assess and manage any environmental risks from contaminated land.

Environment Agency.

The paper has highlighted the need for further research, including systematic surveying of UK soils, to investigate the distribution of PFAS concentrations and the potential impact on human health and the environment.

For more information, please contact 51ÁÔÆæ press (bgspress@bgs.ac.uk) or call 07790 607 010.

The UK summer drought in 2022 produced significant speculation concerning how its termination could affect the national soil resource. It also highlighted a knowledge gap regarding the wider effects of drought on soil properties and functions in temperate soils. BGS scientists have contributed to a recently published review bringing relevant information together to address the knowledge gap and aid policymakers.

The paper focuses on agricultural and ecosystem drought in the UK, which is when soils experience dry periods that affect agriculture production and ecosystem function. However, each individual drought has its own characteristics with respect to length and intensity, with antecedent conditions particularly important to its overall impact.

Vegetation dieback is the most widely recognised effect of drought, often demonstrated in the media using satellite images. Questions frequently concentrate on crop yields, the impact of drought on food production and likely increases in retail prices. Another observable effect of drought in the UK (and globally) is that of soil cracking, which occurs when expansive clay minerals dehydrate and shrink, which may lead to undermining of foundations of houses and infrastructure. The process is of major economic consequence, with damage to infrastructure in the UK estimated at around £100 million a year, sometimes reaching £400 million in very dry years (Harrison et al., 2022).

Responses of soils and catchments to drought termination

Beyond the impact of drought on agricultural production and ecosystem function, a major concern is how the breakdown of soil may affect the soil resource in terms of runoff and potential erosion. This may influence surface-water quality through the transfer of sediment and nutrients. However, theoretically, dry soils should have the greatest potential for infiltration and, when the infiltration rate remains greater than the precipitation rate, erosion of the soil through the generation of runoff is less likely to occur. The response of both soils and catchments to drought termination in the short term will therefore initially be determined by the intensity and duration of precipitation, with intense storms more likely to generate conditions where rainfall exceeds infiltration capacity.

Impact of drought on soil properties

As we can have no long-term prior knowledge as to whether a drought will occur, evidence on how it affects soil properties is hard to obtain unless the drought coincides within the time frame of longer-term monitoring experiments of soil processes. However, experiments examining wetting and drying cycles provide some insight into the range of impacts on biological, chemical and physical processes in soils.

Infiltration depends heavily on soil structure, with many interactions occurring between the biological and physical components of the soil system, particularly in the production of sticky substances that help particles bind together in aggregates. The activity of bacterial and fungal communities in soil is generally negatively impacted by dry conditions and this may lead to some loss of soil structure, potentially affecting infiltration rates of precipitation. In addition, the activity of soil macroinvertebrates with body widths generally between 2 and 30 mm (such as earthworms, woodlice and millipedes) may decrease. These creatures are commonly seen as soil ecosystem engineers, as they create pathways for water drainage.

The biogeochemical cycles of major nutrients, including the production of greenhouse gases, may change due to the effects on the microbial communities that decompose organic matter. This can lead to flushes of nutrients and greenhouse gas emissions upon re-wetting.

Other effects may include:

• more pronounced shrink–swell behaviour than usual in soils containing expandable clays, leading to deep cracking and possible damage to infrastructure
• an increase in the water repellency of soils, particularly those soils high in organic matter, leading to greater surface runoff
• plant responses to drought that can severely reduce the plants’ protective effect, leaving soils exposed to erosion processes and degradation

Soil resilience to and recovery from drought

One focus of soil research in recent years has been exploring its resilience to and recovery from perturbations, of which drought is an obvious major one. ‘Resilience’ relates to the resistance (degree of change) coupled with the recovery (rate and extent) from a disturbance (Constanje et al., 2015).

The nature of precipitation, its intensity and frequency will help determine how soils initially respond to and recover after drought termination. It is likely that the physical, biological and chemical recovery from drought will happen over a variety of time scales, and some parts of the system may reflect an ongoing altered state.

The management of soil organic matter (SOM), a fundamental influence on soil moisture and structure, through cultivation practice and cropping will be important. Higher SOM concentrations offer greater resilience, at least in initial drought periods.  However, increased information is required regarding how biological soil communities, soil moisture dynamics and soil structure recover and how these affect biogeochemical cycles.

Conclusions

The paper reports on how the large number of interactions present between physical, chemical and biological soil properties helps explain soils’ response to drought. However, the results reviewed are drawn largely from experiments examining wetting and drying cycles.

Unlike UK ground and surface waters that have been continually monitored over historical periods, thus allowing assessment of the effects of droughts, soil data collected during actual drought periods from existing experiments are few. This means that knowledge relating to how key soil properties such as soil structure and biogeochemical cycling respond before, during and after a drought is needed for greater understanding. Collecting this data requires long-term experiments. The use of sensors, particularly to monitor soil moisture and shallow groundwater, along with the development of novel sensors could provide the basis of these experiments, allowing drought impacts to be placed into wider contexts.   

In addition, further gaps in our knowledge exist regarding soil water repellancy, the impact of wildfires on soils, multiple stressors (heat; moisture) and the effects of successive extreme events on soil systems, for example drought followed by flooding. On a planet that is experiencing more extreme climate events, addressing such questions will help identify actions that can be taken to build more resilient soil ecosystems.

The research paper, ‘’, is now available to read in full online. 

About the author

51ÁÔÆæ scientists have discovered significantly elevated concentrations of several elements in the soil within many urban areas of the UK. The findings are based on the most extensive snapshot of the UK topsoil chemical data ever produced, which has now been made available to the public for free as part of a world-leading BGS project.

Over four decades, several hundred scientists collected around 58 000 topsoil samples from rural and urban areas across the country to create the most in-depth and exhaustive map of its kind available globally. The data revealed that several elements, including antimony, arsenic, cadmium, calcium, copper, lead, tin and zinc, are present in soils of many of the UK urban areas as a result of environmental pollution.

This is the first time that such a large-scale dataset has been used to evaluate environmental pollution in the UK. It provides a vital reference point for establishing the distribution of several potentially harmful elements (PHEs) in the urban environment. It will enhance the understanding of interactions between people and ecosystems and help to focus further research into the effects the soil chemical environment may have on human and ecosystem health.

This mapping project represents one of the most detailed datasets of its kind anywhere in the world. This data is useful for a multitude of purposes and will help to pave the way for enhanced decision making around the planning and development of the communities in which we live.

Through a greater understanding of the mix of geochemical elements, the UK can enhance its strategic land use planning. This will have a significant effect on decision making around land use, environmental hazards, food production, soil health assessments, identifying new opportunities for mineral exploration and continuing to identify and quantify human impacts on the environment.

Paul Everett, geochemical survey expert at BGS.

The ability to pinpoint the distribution of 41 different chemical elements and identify areas where human activities have affected soil geochemistry gives us invaluable insights and forms a key baseline for researchers from a wide range of disciplines.

The data is available for all to view and download for free on the and will likely prove an essential resource for scientists, developers, local authorities and environmentalists for centuries to come.

About the project

The dataset is provided and to be used at national (1:2 500 000) to regional (1:1 000 000) scales; in the surveyed 25 urban centres, the dataset can be used at larger scales up to the resolution of the 500 Ã— 500 m prediction grid cell; that is, a nominal scale of 1:500 000 with a zoom in up to 1:250 000 scale only.

The UK Compiled Topsoil dataset will provide a resource for research into the effects the soil chemical environment may have on people health, though this is a specialist area for health professionals and researchers that is not directly within the remit of the BGS. For answers to health-related questions, please contact your local authority or your local Health Protection Agency health protection unit.

For more information, please contact BGS press (bgspress@bgs.ac.uk) or call 07790 607 010.

Collaboration can provide an exchange of information vital to the advancement of environmental research. One such partnership is the relationship between BGS and the University of Eldoret (UoE) in Kenya. This partnership not only demonstrates the benefits of international collaboration but also highlights the importance of addressing global challenges collectively.  

Job Isaboke (UoE) and Sophia Dowell (BGS) are research students at their institutions and have been to measure the rate of soil erosion in western Kenya using novel chemical methods. For their PhD projects, they aimed to understand the effect land management can have on soil erosion using plutonium isotopes (Sophia) and the associated loss of micronutrients from the soil (Job), which is important for crop composition and onward dietary intake for animal and human health.

Soil erosion  

Soil erosion is a widespread environmental issue that poses a significant threat to agricultural productivity, water quality and ecosystem health worldwide. In Kenya, soil erosion is driven by factors such as deforestation, unsustainable land-management practices and climate change. However, quantitative data describing the amounts and patterns of soil erosion and sedimentation can be used to inform sustainable soil conservation practices. This data can also aid in the validation of predictive models for an improved understanding of factors influencing the acceleration of erosion processes.ÌýÌý

Working together 

One of the primary advantages of international cooperation is the sharing of expertise and resources. Bringing together diverse backgrounds benefits research at both BGS and UoE by combining advanced technologies and methodologies, such as specialist mass spectrometry methods to detect ultra-trace plutonium in the UK, with invaluable local knowledge and on-the-ground insights from Kenyan counterparts. This allows for a more comprehensive approach to studying soil erosion, encompassing both scientific rigour and practical applicability.  

Ultimately, the collaboration between BGS and UoE stands as a key step toward securing the sustainable future of this agriculturally crucial region and works towards addressing several of the , including: 

• poverty (SDG 1) 
• life below water (SDG 14) 
• life on land (SDG 15)  
  

Beyond scientific advancements, working together to research soil erosion fosters cultural exchange and capacity building. Through joint research initiatives, Job and Sophia have been able to learn from each others’ perspectives, approaches to research and experiences. This cultural exchange has not only enhanced both their roles as early-career researchers, but has also strengthened relationships between BGS and UoE to promote mutual understanding.  

The international collaboration also contributes to the development of scientific capacity in Kenya. By providing training opportunities, mentorship, networks and technology transfer for members of both UK and Kenyan institutions, early-career researchers are empowered to tackle environmental challenges independently.

The opportunities created by this collaborative project collectively and individually demonstrate the potential for scientific research to address environmental issues whilst developing scientific capacity in Kenya and the UK. The two-way exchange of staff and paired Kenya/UK PhD students, including Job and Sophia, provided an enriching experience for all involved.

Michael Watts, head of the BGS International Geoscience Research and Development programme

So much can be achieved with collaboration and a working international team breaks much more than just academic barriers. The larger body of knowledge would benefit through building collaborations globally, as this work has demonstrated.

Prof Odipo Osano, University of Eldoret, Kenya

Through this partnership, Sophia and Job are working towards informing evidence-based decision making and developing targeted interventions to mitigate against future soil erosion. Through attending workshops and conferences, they have both had the opportunity to engage with stakeholders ranging from policymakers and land managers to farmers and community leaders. These workshops have allowed them to understand the best way to communicate their research to different stakeholders and further their understanding of the usability of the data, working on ways to target future research to ensure the maximum impact.  

Through fostering dialogue and knowledge exchange, the collaboration works towards the eventual adoption of sustainable land-management practices and helps to adopt agricultural practices aimed at preserving soil health and preventing erosion. 

I feel my PhD research wouldn’t have been possible without the support from Kenyan counterparts at the University of Eldoret. Both Job and Prof Odipo Osano in-depth knowledge of the local area and dedication to the research have been invaluable. Without their help, the fieldwork wouldn’t have been possible, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic where I wasn’t able to travel to Kenya to conduct the work myself. But, above all else, I feel this PhD opportunity has allowed me to grow, both professionally and personally, into the scientist I am today and for that I am extremely grateful.

Dr Sophia Dowell

As part of the collaboration, Sophia recently gained her PhD in ‘Utilising plutonium isotopes to evaluate soil erosion in tropical East African agri-systems’ and Job has gained a master degree in environmental science; he is now working towards his PhD in ‘Dynamics of soil micronutrient loss and transfer as influenced by land management’. 

As a PhD student from Kenya, I am grateful for the collaboration between UoE and BGS, which provided me with both laboratory training and financial resources. I appreciate the support from my UK supervisors, Dr Michael Watts and Dr Olivier Humphrey, and the entire BGS inorganic chemistry department team.

To be a successful scientist, one must undergo extensive training using advanced instrumentation and learn laboratory etiquette. Within the framework of my PhD research, I am currently working with Dr Sophia Dowell to determine soil erosion dynamics in tropical locations and link this to micronutrients in soils.

Job Isaboke

Acknowledgements  

This research was conducted with the financial support of the following funders:  

• 51ÁÔÆæ/NERC grant NE/R000069/1, entitled ‘Geoscience for Sustainable Futures’  
• 51ÁÔÆæ Centre for Environmental Geochemistry programmes 
• NERC National Capability International Geoscience programme, entitled ‘Geoscience to tackle global environmental challenges’ (NE/X006255/1)  

Additional financial support from:  

• The Royal Society International Collaboration Awards 2019 grant ICA/R1/191077, entitled ‘Dynamics of environmental geochemistry and health in a lake-wide basin’ 
• Natural Environment Research Council ARIES Doctoral Training Partnership (grant number NE/S007334/1)  
• 51ÁÔÆæ University Funding Initiative (GA/19S/017)  

Additional support from:  

• British Academy Early Career Researchers Writing Skills Workshop (WW21100104) 

About the authors 

Sophia Dowell is an analytical geochemist working within the BGS Inorganic Geochemistry Facility in Keyworth. Prior to this, she was a BUFI PhD student funded by the NERC ARIES doctoral training programme. This PhD was in collaboration with BGS, the University of Plymouth and the University of Eldoret in Kenya. 

Job Isaboke is a PhD researcher funded by BUFI/The Royal Society in collaboration with BGS and the University of Eldoret. He has had the opportunity to work within the UK alongside BGS during his PhD but is mainly based in Eldoret, Kenya.  

, with agricultural land use occupying the vast majority of that space. . Soils enable food production and livestock grazing, in addition to other essential ecosystem services such as carbon or water storage.  

Soil parent materials are one of five soil-forming factors and are derived from the weathering of underlying rocks and deposits. Understanding a soil parent material is useful when assessing different types of environmental and soil measurements as it strongly influences a soil texture, drainage characteristics, baseline chemistry and depth and profile structure. 

What is the BGS Soil Parent Material Model? 

The 51ÁÔÆæ Soil Parent Material Model provides information to better understand soil and subsoil characteristics across Great Britain. It includes information on:  

• textureÌý
• depthÌý
• chemistryÌý
• erosionÌýÌý

The dataset is intended for a wide range of users, including: 

• farmers 
• agronomists 
• environmental groups 
• land agents 
• energy companies  

The model provides information to help farmers and agronomists to identify soils and landscapes susceptible to erosion and develop more resilient soil-management plans for their farms. Increasingly, the dataset is being combined with on-farm soil sample data, as well as being used to cross-check data captured from drone surveys and onboard sensors.  

Soil texture  

The texture of a soil is a critical factor for crop production and other types of land use. It is one of the most easily recognisable soil properties for farmers when assessing their soils for crop viability. Texture is determined by the size and mixture of clay, sand and silt particles, which influence a wide range of other soil properties like its water-holding capacity, drainage characteristics and overall structure.  

For example, soils with a heavy clay content better retain water and nutrients; however, their compact structure makes them harder to work with. Sandy soils allow for better drainage due to the larger particles, but this can make them more susceptible to drying out in warmer conditions and allow nutrients to leach away much more easily during heavy rainfall. Loamy soils, which contain a more equal distribution of sand, silt and clay, are often considered to be the most ideal soil type for agriculture.  

The BGS Soil Parent Material Model dataset indicates soil texture using the descriptions ‘light’, ‘medium’ and ‘heavy’, based on the percentage sand, silt and clay content. 

Soil depth  

The depth of a soil influences the type of vegetation that can grow in it, as well as how much water and nutrients may be available. Deep-rooted crops will require deeper soils to thrive and there may be problems with water management where shallow soils are unable to provide sufficient plant-available water capacity.  

Interest in putting more organic carbon back into soils is increasing, which is also driving more interest in the thickness of soil profiles across Great Britain. These profiles are available in the BGS Soil Parent Material Model. The dataset has also been used to look at agroforestry, where soil depth plays an important role in crop development. 

Soil chemistry  

A soil chemistry is heavily derived from the minerals found in the underlying soil parent material. Applications of nutrients and conditioners to farming land can change this over time, but the natural processes of soil development will always return a soil to the baseline geochemistry of its parent.  

The pH of a soil is critical to nutrient availability, influencing the type of vegetation that can grow in it. Our dataset provides information on the carbonate content of parent materials, which has been used to assess buffering of pH, as well as the plant availability of critical minerals like magnesium and selenium. 

Soil erosion 

One of the threats to soils is the risk of erosion by wind and rain, which has been blamed on intensive agriculture and land-management processes. . Climate change may exacerbate soil erosion. Changing weather patterns can bring periods of more intense rainfall, creating rills and gullies in a wide range of soil types, whilst periods of desiccation during heatwaves, combined with more intense wind systems, pose a risk of wind erosion to our lighter soils. The loss of valuable soils into drainage systems is costly and often requires some form of remedial clean-up.  

Why are more people accessing BGS Soil Parent Material Model? 

Increasing interest in the BGS Soil Parent Material Model can be attributed to a growing awareness of the importance of soils and the need to better understand soils to help develop sustainable agriculture. The UK Government ‘‘ outlines the aim for all of England soils to be managed sustainably by 2030. 

UK research into soils has grown significantly in the last few years and, more recently, has been driven by better modelling techniques and data availability, and a rise in people wanting to use data for soil and landscape metrics. Farmers are also being asked to collect more information about their soils. This valuable new data can be used in conjunction with mapping to improve sampling strategy and optimise the extrapolation of the data across the wider farm holdings. The wider agronomy sector is using a range of novel spatial analysis techniques, including artificial intelligence, to compare different aspects of land use for soil benchmarking; integration with the parent material mapping enables local-to-regional extrapolation of their research. 

How to access the model 

The 51ÁÔÆæ Soil Parent Material Model dataset is available for download. A more detailed, 1:50 000-scale dataset is available under licence — please contact BGS Enquiries (enquiries@bgs.ac.uk). The dataset webpages have more information, links, sample data, downloads and a user guide. 

The model is also available to view as a map through the (UKSO), which provides soil data comprising 200 layers of information from nine research bodies across the UK. 

The future of the BGS Soil Parent Material Model 

We are currently in the process of securing funding for UKSO the next five years and preparing for the latest release of the BGS Soil Parent Material Map within the next 12 months.  

51ÁÔÆæ has an active soil research team and a world-leading group of environmental statisticians contributing to our soil research activities.   

For further information about the BGS Soil Parent Material Model please contact the digital data team (digitaldata@bgs.ac.uk).  

About the authors

Lauren Harris is a business assistant in BGS Informatics, but is also in her fourth year of part-time study at the Open University studying for a BSc in environmental science (2020 to present).

My name is Christopher Bengt and I am first-year PhD student enrolled at Lancaster University and I am being hosted at the BGS by the Stable Isotope Facility. My PhD is funded through the and the 51ÁÔÆæ University Funding Initiative. My research aims to understand fundamental questions about how tropical forest composition, structure and flowering dynamics are affected by the concentrations of essential nutrients, importantly phosphorus, in the soil. 

My previous research 

Prior to taking this post, I completed my master degree (MRes) in biological science at Birkbeck, University of London, where I studied the extraction of DNA from archaeological animal bones. This work involved using a number of analytical methods to assess the level of damage to the bones, indicating the extent of preservation of ancient DNA. Whilst studying, I also worked on immune response to vaccines and infectious diseases as a laboratory technician at the World Health Organisation Pneumococcal Serology Reference Laboratory at University College, London. All these skills stand me in good stead for my PhD, which will have significant laboratory and fieldwork requirements.  

Tropical rainforests 

Tropical rainforests are the oldest living and most complex ecosystems on Earth, with evidence from fossils and pollen dating back 70 million years. Being in the tropics, the rainforests have a stable climate consisting of warm temperatures, high precipitation levels and high levels of solar irradiation, providing essential conditions for highly productive forests. The stable climate, abundant resources and millions of years of evolution mean biodiversity in tropical rainforests has flourished, resulting in countless species with specialised adaptations.  

The effect of volcanoes on tropical ecosystems 

Unexpectedly for such diverse and productive ecosystems, rainforest soils are often of poor quality, with low concentrations of nutrients including carbon, nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus. However, in areas such as the Philippines (my study area), volcanic eruptions can deposit nutrient-rich ash directly into the tropical rainforest environment. Volcanic ash is composed of fine rock particles that can be expelled and then deposited over vast areas, many kilometres from the original site of eruption. These particles contain essential nutrients such as potassium and phosphorus, and it is hypothesised that these may be critical for soil enrichment.  

Whilst volcanic eruptions can pose an immediate threat to local ecosystems, the aftermath may help foster these fertile environments. The relationship between volcanoes and nutrient-rich soils underscores the dual nature of these natural phenomena that are both destructive and transformative.  

Past records of climate 

To better understand the relationship between volcanoes and tropical ecosystems, we must explore past records of volcanic activity and forest productivity. These are often best found within lake sediment archives.  

Lakes serve as repositories of environmental history through the sediments that accumulate at their bottoms. The sediments are composed of organic and inorganic materials and encapsulate a wealth of information, telling us about crucial nutrients (including phosphorus) and serving as archives of ecological changes. My project will analyse both the nutrient makeup of the lake sediments and the ancient DNA preserved within them. In combination, these records will allow us to investigate the links between nutrient dynamics, ecosystem productivity and plant and tree diversity.  

For my project, I will undertake a fieldtrip to Lake Bulusan at Mount Bulusan, one of the most active volcanoes in the Philippines, which is surrounded by rainforest. Cores of the sediment from the lake will be brought back to the UK to interrogate the geochemical signatures trapped within them. The sediment cores will also be sent to the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, to extract and analyse modern and ancient DNA.  

These records should tell us more about how climate, volcanic activity and biological history are linked throughout the last 2000 years. This multiproxy approach will uncover critical information regarding the modern phosphorus cycle and soil limitations, as well as the true impact volcanic events have had on the phosphorus cycle in the palaeorecord and, in turn, the development and flowering of the surrounding tropical forest. The findings could potentially offer a ‘step change’ in our understanding of tropical forest development in volcanically active regions.  

About the author

Christopher Bengt is a first-year PhD student enrolled at Lancaster University. His PhD is funded through the and the 51ÁÔÆæ University Funding Initiative.