science facilities Archives - 51��

Offshore infrastructure foundation inspection methods

Jon-Paul Orsi — Tue, 14 Jul 2020 06:55:42 +0000

Offshore structures

The fossil fuel and renewable energy industries both rely heavily on offshore platforms and infrastructure constructed on the seabed of the shallow seas around the UK. While the platform designs vary, for example to suit water depth, injected concrete is commonly used to transfer the loads between steel substructures within their foundations. Wind turbines, for example, use a range of foundation designs including the gravity (or monopile) foundation for shallow water depths (less than 30 m) or the tripod foundation for deeper water depths (down to 60 m). The foundations in all cases incorporate load transfer through steel-concrete-steel substructures (Figure 1).

Figure 1�� Principal foundation for offshore infrastructure constructed on the seabed. BGS © 51��.

Inspection of concrete grouts

The foundation substructure can be represented by a three-layer system bound by water inside the cylindrical pile and the open sea surrounding the substructure, shown in the inset in Figure 1.

This three-layer system can be inspected using a low-frequency beam of ultrasound. Incident ultrasound is partially reflected and transmitted from the substructure’s outer surface. The transmitted wave enters the structure to be partially transmitted and reflected at each boundary surface between the steel and concrete layers. Thus, the ultrasound waves backscattered from and transmitted through this layered sequence are the result of a superposition of a series of the original incident wave that has been modulated by partial reflection and transmission, and delayed via multiple transmissions across the thickness of the bound structural layers (Figure 1 inset).

The echo-reflected signals are modulated and exhibit characteristic notches in their magnitude spectra that are signature characteristics not only of the material layers, but also of any small water gaps between individual solid layers.

Wave propagation through foundation models

The concrete is subjected to large, complex stresses leading to progressive deterioration in the foundation condition, manifested in a range of defects such as debonding and the growth of gaps at its interfaces with the steel substructures, or even a complete loss of concrete in parts of the annulus (Brett et al. 2018).

We modelled the wave propagation through this three-layered system to evaluate the potential sensitivity of an echo ultrasound inspection method to these effects. The model outcomes include predicted spectra for a three-layered foundation system in good condition, i.e. with no gaps between the concrete and either of the bounding steel substructures (shown as the red plots in Figure 2), and the spectral characteristics related to front gaps (left-hand plots in Figure 2) and rear gaps (right-hand plots). This modelling yielded notable results.

Results

Increasing the aperture of a front gap from 0.1 mm to 1 mm causes the notch at 53.3 kHz to diminish in depth and shift to lower frequencies. The notch at 60.75 kHz also shifts to slightly lower frequencies but deepens and the notch at 73.8 kHz shifts to lower frequencies (Figure 2, left-hand plot).

Increasing the aperture of a rear gap from 0.1 mm to 1 mm causes the minimum at 53.3 kHz to shift to lower frequencies while maintaining a constant depth. The minimum at 60.75 kHz diminishes while also shifting to slightly lower frequencies and the minimum at 73.8 kHz grows and shifts to lower frequencies (Figure 2, right-hand plot).

Figure 2�� Ultrasound wave propagation through foundation model, showing effects on front and rear gaps. BGS © 51��.

Diagnosing concrete condition in foundations

Our numerical modelling indicated that it was feasible to inspect the condition of offshore foundations using an echo-ultrasound method. The model outcomes provided the baseline echo spectra used to distinguish defected foundations from those in good condition. Experimental replication of these baseline spectra would then provide very compelling evidence and the impetus for development of an inspection platform for offshore deployment.

Figure 3 shows a large ultrasound transducer (150 mm²) used to transmit ultrasound pulses towards the layered steel-concrete-steel target and to detect the echoes from this target. The black plots in the left- and right-hand graphs in Figure 3 show the spectrum for a target in ‘good condition’, i.e. where the concrete is in contact with both steel plates.

In Figure 3, note how the notch at 54 kHz diminishes and shifts to lower frequencies with the introduction of a front gap of increasing aperture; note also how the notch at 61 kHz deepens and shifts to lower frequencies.

Note how the notch at 54 kHz deepens and shifts to lower frequencies with the introduction of a rear gap of increasing aperture; note also how the notch at 61 kHz diminishes and shifts to lower frequencies. These are the same responses as the modelling outcomes and these very different responses verified the great potential for applying echo ultrasound to inspect offshore foundation condition.

Figure 3�� Ultrasound wave propagation experimental samples showing effects on front and rear gaps. BGS © 51��.

Field ultrasound inspection system

The laboratory bench top modules were condensed onto a ROV-deployed field system shown in Figure 4, which comprised:

a PC laptop
a combined arbitrary wave generator (AWG) digital storage oscilloscope (DSO)
a sonar pulser-receiver
a sonar probe (or ultrasonic transducer)

Figure 4�� Ultrasound field inspection system. BGS © 51��.

Figure 5�� The sonar probe of the field ultrasound inspection system mounted onto an ROV. BGS © 51��.

This system was deployed from a remotely operated vehicle (ROV), which had complete and independent yaw, pitch and roll (Figure 5). The sonar probe was centrally mounted on the front of the ROV along with lights and cameras to aid visibility. For example, Figure 5b shows a view of an underwater target about to be inspected. Note that the spacer bars are visible on either side of each view. These were used to maintain a constant echo offset for all inspections.

This platform was tested in a diving pool by recording echo reflections from a 0.5 m × 0.5 m square target comprising a 50 mm front steel plate, a 70 mm concrete centre layer and a 50 mm rear steel plate (Figure 6). The field trials consisted of a similar matrix of experiments to the laboratory trials whereby echoes were recorded from targets in ‘good condition’ and with defects including front and rear gaps.

Figure 6�� Field trials of ROV-deployed echo-ultrasound inspection system. BGS © 51��.

Our early field trials were very encouraging because we gathered data that confirmed our findings from the numerical models and also from the laboratory experimentation. For example, Figure 7 compares the spectra for a steel-concrete-steel target in good condition (black plot in both right- and left-hand graphs) with the spectra from targets with gaps between the concrete and the front steel plate (left-hand graphs) or the rear steel plate (right-hand graphs). Note how the higher frequency notch at 59 kHz develops as the front gap increases, whereas the lower frequency notch at 57 kHz develops as the rear gap in aperture.

Our aim is to follow up these field trial with further trials on actual offshore infrastructure.

Relative topics

engineering and geotechnical capability science facilities

Transport Properties and Fracture Physics Research Laboratories

Jon-Paul Orsi — Wed, 22 Apr 2020 07:24:27 +0000

The Transport Properties and Fracture Physics Research Laboratories at the BGS are led by Caroline Graham and Robert Cuss, respectively, and are part of the Fluid and Rock Processes Laboratory Cluster. Research in the Transport Properties Research Laboratory (TPRL) and the Fracture Physics Laboratory (FPL) focuses on understanding the mechanisms and processes governing the movement of fluids (water, gas and solutes) and the deformation of rock in the subsurface, specialising in the measurement of properties in ultra-low permeability materials. Thirty years of development in this field has led to high-precision techniques, allowing exceptionally small amounts of flow to be measured where conventional techniques can be unsuccessful. As such, the TPRL and FPL are able to investigate the long-term properties of rocks that act as ‘seals’ to fluid, on geological timescales.

Panoramic view of the Large Scale Gas Injection Test (Lasgit) in Sweden. BGS © 51��.

Testing of permeability in low permeability rocks in the laboratory. BGS © 51��.

X-ray CT reveals microstructures in clay rocks that influence flow paths. BGS © 51��.

Testing of supercritical CO₂ flow for carbon capture and storage (CCS). BGS © 51��.

Gas bubbles expelled from Bowland Shale as it is heated. BGS © 51��.

Fracture surface in Callovo-Oxfordian claystone, formed in the laborator. BGS © 51��.

Bespoke apparatus is designed and built at the BGS. BGS © 51��.

Dissolution caverns formed in rock salt for underground gas storage. BGS © 51��.

Laboratory capability

With careful attention to experimental design, choice of instrumentation, calibration and regulation of testing conditions, the laboratories are able to quantify key properties for intact, fractured and flow along interfaces for low permeability materials.

Apparatus and experimental methodologies are custom designed to meet the precise requirements of the client and work programme.
Experiments can be performed on intact or fractured rock, as well as interfaces between neighbouring materials.
Experiments are performed under simulated downhole stress, pore pressure, temperature, and chemical conditions using triaxial, isotropic (hydrostatic) or constant-volume cells.
High accuracy, heavy duty shear box systems have been developed to examine fracture, fault and interfacial flow.
Apparatus is assembled in a constant temperature test chamber, which is regulated to better than ±0.3°C or within oven or high-precision incubators.
pressure and flow-rates are precisely set or monitored using microprocessor-controlled syringe pumps
Experiments are remotely controlled and test parameters recorded using customised code developed using the National Instruments LabVIEW software package.

Measured properties

saturation and consolidation properties
intrinsic permeability (including specific storage and anisotropy ratio)
coupled flow parameters (e.g. osmotic permeability, consolidation coefficients)
gas diffusion coefficients
capillary entry breakthrough and threshold pressures
gas permeability function
drained and undrained compressibility
rheological (creep) properties
mechanical properties

Research interests

We have a considerable research track record in answering specific scientific questions relating to the safety case for deep geological disposal of heat-generating and high-activity radioactive wastes. This work has covered the flow and deformation properties of host rocks, engineered barrier systems and interfaces between engineering components.

Led by Jon Harrington

Our research focus has been on sealing properties of caprocks,�� reservoir rocks, and fracture and fault flow, with emphasis on changes in properties related to the depletion of reservoirs and the re-inflation resulting from injection of CO₂.

Led by Caroline Graham

Our shale gas research has focused on:

permeability of individual units within prospective units of shale gas
flow along fractures
formation of hydraulic fractures
composition of gas released by stimulation

Questions have been addressed for both exploration and regulator purposes.

Led by Robert Cuss

Our research has focused on the mechanical controls on the formation of solution caverns created for underground gas storage and the permeability of salt formations. Emphasis has been placed on the cycling of cavern pressurisation and the influence this has on cavern integrity.

Led by Jon Harrington

In close collaboration with the BGS’s Hydrothermal Laboratory, we conduct research on the flow properties of complex fault zones.

Led by Robert Cuss

We conduct research that is complementary to the applied scientific areas. This includes:

visualisation of flow pathways
manufacturing of synthetic rock samples
flow at stress conditions not relevant to the specific applied areas
development of novel experimental apparatus and techniques

Led by Jon Harrington

Laboratory and field studies

Rock mechanics testing: changes in flow properties in caprock under complicated pressure conditions. BGS © 51��.

Laboratory capability

Laboratory research is conducted on samples up to 250 cc in size; these represent large test samples in low permeability materials. Tests can be conducted rapidly (in minutes), but our main emphasis is on long-term experiments that can run for multiple years. However, test durations of six months to one year are normal.

The laboratory has six isotropic, four constant volume, three shear rigs, and three triaxial apparatus. These cover stress conditions from 1 to 70 MPa (near surface to 3 km depth). The laboratory also has a high-pressure capability, which is able to extend the pressure range to 150 MPa (at 130°C) using an isotropic cell to explore flow and deformation behaviour at near-crustal depths.

The laboratory is also equipped with a number of hydraulic presses able to consolidate and condition-test material, or create synthetic samples for process understanding and material design. Pressures in excess of 500 MPa (on samples 60 mm in diameter) can be applied by the presses to yield materials with a range of material properties.

The TPRL has an established track record of the design, build and operation of field-scale investigations. These include the Lasgit experiment at the Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory (Sweden; 2005–2020), the gas transfer experiment at the Mont Terri Underground Research Laboratory (Switzerland: 2020–2022), and the cavern formation experiment at the Dark Matter Laboratory at the Boubly Potash mine (UK: 2019 onwards).

Further information

laboratory studies examining gas, water and solute movement
laboratory studies examining hydromechnical behaviour
field-scale experiments examining gas and water flow in a range of natural and engineered systems
preparation of state-of-the-art overview reports

, UK
, Sweden
, France
, Switzerland
, Belgium
, Netherlands
, international consortium
European Union
, UK
, UK
, international consortium
, UK
Universities:

: specific outstanding questions of gas movement
: bentonite mechanical evolution
: properties of concrete/Callovo-Oxfordian claystone interface
Lasgit: full-scale KBS-3 mock-up demonstrating gas behaviour
Gas Transfer (GT): lab and field investigation of gas advection in Opalinus Clay
: geological layers and fractures on the propagation of hydraulic fractures
CONTAIN: role of depletion and inflation on caprock sealing

Need more information?

Contact Dr Cuss

Contact Dr Harrington

Contact Dr Caroline Graham

Relative topics

fluid and rock processes laboratory science facilities

Rock Volume Characterisation Laboratory Cluster

Jon-Paul Orsi — Thu, 16 Apr 2020 20:54:37 +0000

The Rock Volume Characterisation Cluster studies the structural and compositional characterisation of rocks and their constituent parts, from micron to kilometre scale.

Ribbons and wisps of illite and illite–smecite hosted on the platy and blocky forms of a kaolinite booklet. Helsby Sandstone Formation core from a borehole at GeoEnergy Test Bed, Leicestershire. Secondary electron scanning electron microscope image from BGS Zeiss Sigma 300 VP-FEG, using its in-lens detector. SSK108242. BGS © 51��.

Loading the cold trap of the mass spectrometer with liquid nitrogen to reduce the pressure in the sample chamber before analysis begins. BGS © 51��.

Tetrad of Raistrickia nigra (× 1000), a Carboniferous (359–299 million years old) miospore.�� This specimen (#8729) is part of the Bernard Owens Collection, one of the most complete single grain mount collections in the world for the Carboniferous, housed at BGS. BGS © 51��.

publicly available. BGS © 51��.

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Core from the UK Geoenergy Observatory at Glasgow ready to be scanned within the Geotek Core Workstation (MSCL-XYZ) for high-resolution optical images, which are . BGS © 51��.

²³⁸U/²³⁵U systematics in terrestrial U-bearing minerals. BGS © 51��.

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Dissolved samples ready for chemical purification and isotope ratio mass spectrometry.�� These samples were used in the study of Hiess et al (2011) . BGS © 51��.

Phase map of a palaeo-weathered, fractured breccia of sedimentary rock types. Pale blue highlights calcite fracture fill. Clasts are defined by variable textures and mineralogies (yellow – quartz; dark blue -feldspar; red – Fe-rich mudstone/clay matrix; orange – clay matrix; black – bituminous organic material). Note the microfractures in the bituminous organics are cemented by quartz and calcite. Map generated using Mineralogic on BGS Zeiss Sigma 300 VP-FEG. SSK76495. BGS © 51��.

The Itrax XRF Scanner Multi Core (MC) being used to continuously scan slabbed rock or split sediment core for elemental abundances (Na to U). Additional optical and UV imaging capabilities provide records of downcore textual/compositional variation. BGS © 51��.

3D CT scan of a deep-oceanic ferromanganese nodule from the Clarion–Clipperton Fracture Zone in the Pacific Ocean, using the Geotek rotating X-ray CT (RXCT) core scanner and image visualisation software PerGeos. Internal structures of the specimen such as growth layers and fracture network can be observed. BGS © 51��.

The laser ablation system coupled to a multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer being used to date the mineral zircon at a spatial scale of tens of microns. BGS © 51��.

The cluster comprises a set of leading analytical capabilities and expertise, outlined below, that focus on the characterisation of materials at a range of scales and target different attributes (mineralogy, geochemistry, structure etc). Current activities in the cluster are focused on the integration of the individual capabilities in order to offer a more complete, coherent characterisation for a range of geological applications.

Capabilities

The Core Scanning Facility (CSF) was initially established in 2018 as part of the BEIS-funded UK Geoenergy Observatories project. The facility is centred on a suite of core scanners, including two multi-core X-ray fluorescence (XRF) core scanners (Itrax multicore scanner and Geotek MSCL-XYZ), an X-ray computed tomography (CT) core scanner (Geotek RXCT) and multi-sensor core logger (Geotek MSCL-S).

These analytical techniques are non-destructive and are used to characterise the chemical and physical properties of rock core, sediment core and rock samples from around a hundred microns up to kilometre scale, providing data to underpin a breadth of science applications.

Capabilities of the scanning facility are:

gamma density

magnetic susceptibility

P-wave velocity

non-contact electrical resistivity

natural gamma activity

rotating x-ray computed tomography (2D and 3D)

near infra-red imaging

ultra-violet imaging

high-resolution line scan imaging (50-micron resolution)

X-ray fluorescence (XRF)

For more detailed information about our capabilities, please go to .

In addition to characterising core from the UKGEOS observatory, the scanning facility works on projects from academic partners, commercial clients and governmental agencies. Projects can be large and small, from hundreds of meters of core to 10s of centimetres.

Staff working in the Core Scanning Facility (CSF) are Dr. Magret Damaschke (CSF manager), Dr. Elisabeth Steer (CSF deputy manager), Cameron Fletcher (CSF technician).

For any enquiries about the facility please contact enquiries@bgs.ac.uk. For access to the facility, please navigate to the access tab of the .

The Geochronology and Tracers Facility (GTF) is part of the NERC-funded (NEIF), in addition to being a BGS facility. This group specialises in using a range of isotopic analyses of rocks and minerals for the dating of rocks and minerals and as ‘tracers’ for a breadth of geological and environmental processes, using a combination of approaches using both spatial resolution and high-precision techniques. The chronology capabilities are applied to a range of materials, from traditional uranium-bearing minerals to less commonly utilised phases such as carbonate, allowing for a wider range of applications. The same analytical capabilities are used for the application of tracer isotopes (e.g., Si, Sr, Nd, Pb) to a range of geological, environmental and archaeological science topics.

Mineralogy and petrology is an established set of capabilities at BGS, from bespoke thin-section preparation though optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction to thermal analysis and allied techniques. These methods allow for the identification and quantification of the mineralogy and petrology of rocks, soils and particulates. This information is used to underpin a wide range of materials characterisation and research, including diagenesis, mineralisation and fluid/rock interaction.

The BGS Palaeontology Laboratories are part of a broader capability in palaeontology in BGS, which also includes extensive collections of macrofossils and microfossils. Our palaeontology laboratories constitute essential sample preparation facilities in palynology and micropalaeontology for a range of stratigraphical uses. The data is combined with other stratigraphical data types (for example, chemistry and physical properties) to help characterise ‘stratigraphical volumes’ that are targets for use in understanding the properties of such volumes at the scales from microns to kilometres.

Need more information?

Please contact the head of the Rock Volume Characterisation Laboratory Cluster

Dr Daniel Condon

Hydrothermal Laboratory

Jon-Paul Orsi — Thu, 16 Apr 2020 20:44:47 +0000

Hydrothermal research at the BGS is carried out within the Fluid and Rock Processes Laboratory Cluster. This laboratory is used to study chemical reactions between fluids and rocks under conditions found in the top few kilometres of the Earth’s crust. In more than 25 years of operation, the laboratory has been at the centre of numerous investigations that require well-controlled conditions to study reaction processes under in situ conditions (i.e. elevated temperatures and pressures) and it is probably unique in the range of very different studies that have been investigated in the laboratory.

Assembly of a high pressure/high temperature reaction vessel. BGS © 51��.

The laboratory

The laboratory was set up at Harwell in 1979, when the UK high-level radioactive waste programme needed to understand reactions between vitrified waste and groundwater. It was dismantled in 1983 and moved to the BGS’s main site at Keyworth.

The high-level waste programme ceased in 1981 and the laboratory was then used to study how hot granite reacted with water as part of the hot dry rock (HDR) geothermal programme in Cornwall. Knowledge gained from this facilitated study of reactions in geothermal systems in Costa Rica (1985–87) and and within submarine black smokers (as part of the British mid-ocean ridge (BRIDGE) initiative (1994–95)).

The demise of the UK HDR programme in 1989 led to another shift in activities, studying the impacts of cement-based materials as engineered barriers for the disposal of radioactive wastes. The laboratory was a major source of information on the way in which alkaline cement porewaters react with rocks, for both UK and international programmes (1989–2000).

In 1992, concern about the effect of carbon dioxide (CO₂) on global temperatures resulted in the BGS leading an international team investigating the potential for the deep underground storage of CO₂. Within this programme, and similar ones that continue today, the laboratory was used to study reactions between CO₂, groundwaters and rock types that might be encountered during the deep underground storage of CO₂. Other current activities also include weathering processes and how metals are leached from mine waste.

Static (batch) and flow-through equipment are available in the laboratory, with usable volumes ranging from less than one millilitre to over ten litres. Much of the equipment can withstand high temperatures and pressures, with current standard operating conditions up to about 400°C and 500 bar.

More extreme conditions can be simulated with with minor modifications. Although some equipment is ‘off the shelf’, numerous pieces are novel, having been specially developed for the laboratory. The experimental reaction products are characterised using a wide range of fluid chemical and mineralogical analytical techniques that are available within other dedicated laboratories at the BGS.

The BGS has developed an in-house laboratory capability to carry out experiments simulating fluid–rock interactions in deep geological conditions. Experiments utilise a specialised pressure vessel known as the ‘Big Rig’.

Geological materials to be investigated are packed into a titanium column (100 cm long with an internal diameter of 3.6 cm), which in turn is loaded into the Big Rig. The confining pressure is maintained by a syringe pump. Reactant fluid is equilibrated in a 3��litre conditioning vessel before being displaced into the column. Fluid pressure and flow are further controlled by syringe pumps. Samples of the reactant fluid are collected from the column using a floating-piston titanium pressure sampler.

Relevance to important issues

Experiments produce data relevant to important issues of today:

studying the high temperature alteration of borosilicate glass, an important waste-form being considered for the for disposal of high-level radioactive waste
investigating the reactions occurring in and around highly alkaline cement, with a view to understanding alkaline disturbed zones around repositories for the underground disposal of low to intermediate radioactive waste
quantifying the reactivity of CO₂��with rocks and its impact on long-term mineral trapping during the deep underground disposal of CO₂
studying reactions occurring within high-temperature geothermal systems and their potential impact on rocks and reservoir properties
investigating weathering processes, including the leaching of toxic metals from fly ash and mine wastes
quantifying the dissolution rates of a variety of minerals in order to help improve the accuracy and confidence in predictive geochemical computer models

Carbon capture and storage research

These are the areas of carbon capture and storage (CCS) research that this laboratory is working on.

The focus of our�� CCS research is on the geochemical interactions between CO₂, groundwaters and a range of rock types at elevated temperatures (25–400°C using incubators, ovens and heating jackets) and pressures that range from ambient to over 500 atmospheres.

We have different types of pressure vessels: static ‘batch reactors’, mixed flow reactors and flow-through reactors. Many items of equipment have been designed by the laboratory staff and manufactured within BGS workshops.

The hydrothermal laboratory is assessing the chemical and mineralogical changes caused by stored CO₂ on reservoir rocks (e.g. sandstones and limestones) and caprocks (e.g. clays and evaporites) and how these contribute to long-term safe storage. Reactions are tracked in various ways, including visual observations, monitoring fluid chemical changes and detailed mineralogical analysis of the reacted solids. Additionally, we can derive the fundamental data on reaction processes and rates that underpin predictive geochemical modelling of how the rocks will react on a longer timescale. This allows us to investigate the feasibility of storing CO₂��in this way in different formations, under different conditions.

Projects for this laboratory include:

(Ultimate CO₂): we are studying the effects of acidic impurities (hydrogen sulphide (H₂S), sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂)) present in the CO₂��upon the reservoir rock.
(ECO₂): we are studying the effects of CO₂ on seabed sediment.
(CO₂CARE): we conducted experiments that studied the impact of stored CO₂ on borehole infrastructure (i.e. borehole steel and cement) and how this might impact borehole sealing and the potential for CO₂��release, as well as studying the effects of acidic impurities (H₂S, SO₂��and NO₂) present in the injected CO₂.

Our staff

The Hydrothermal Laboratory staff all have an academic chemical background, as well as strong practical skills. Properly understanding the processes going on in the experiments involves close collaboration between the experimental staff, analytical chemists and mineralogists, as well as collaboration with other BGS fluid processes researchers:

Gas Monitoring Facility: Helen Taylor-Curran
Geomicrobiology Laboratory: Simon Gregory��
Hydrates and Ices Laboratory: Chris Rochelle
Transport Properties Research Laboratory: Caroline Graham

Need more information?

For more information, please contact the Head of the Fluid and Rock Processes Cluster – Dr Jon Harrington

Get in touch

Relative topics

fluid and rock processes laboratory science facilities

Organic Geochemistry Facility

Jon-Paul Orsi — Wed, 18 Mar 2020 20:32:59 +0000

We offer a range of organic geochemical measurements, experiments and interpretations spanning environmental change and environmental pollution as well as hydrocarbon geochemistry. We specialise in organic geochemical measurements at the bulk and molecular level in complex matrices such as soils, sediments (lake; estuarine-coastal; open marine), effluent sludges, biota and waters as well as drilled rock core and chippings.

Our organic geochemistry facility specialists track river/estuary/coastal environmental pollution. BGS © 51��.

Researching environmental changes from sediment records. BGS © 51��.

Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry for the measurment of pesticides, pharmaceuticals and natural organic compounds. BGS © 51��.

Gas chromatography mass spectrometry for the analysis of legacy and emerging contaminants as well as natural chemical biomarkers found in soils sediments and rock. BGS © 51��.

Rock-Eval(6) for assesment of organic matter source and quality. BGS © 51��.

Solvent extracts from Clyde sediments with different hydrocarbon concentrations. BGS © 51��.

Our work

Some of our current work.

Legacy, emerging and sewage contamination in sediments, Thames estuary, UK
Pharmaceuticals, pesticides and toxicity, Nairobi river, Kenya
Sediment and soil pollution of Red river and urban canals of Hanoi, Vietnam
PAH, PCB and black carbon in surface soils central London, UK
Dermal bioaccessibility of PAH for the re-development of brownfield sites

Tracking organic carbon by molecular markers in the Conwy estuary, Wales, UK
Chemical characterisation of fossil woods (lignites) from the Miocene
Carbon storage and organic matter stability in freshwater wetland peats (Mexico; Panama)

Rock-Eval(6) hydrocarbon geochemistry of Carboniferous shales, UK
Understanding the transfer of hydrocarbon bearing parent rock to soils

Rock-Eval(6) pyrolysis — bulk rock method — for oil and gas exploration, provision of 16 standard acquisition and calculated parameters used to evaluate source rocks and hydrocarbon potential. Measurement of:
- TOC (per cent)
- S1
- S2
- S3
- hydrogen index
- oxygen index
- production index
- Tmax
- TpS2
- residual organic carbon (per cent)
- mineral carbon (per cent) of rocks, cuttings, coals and isolated kerogens
Rock-Eval(6) pyrolysis — organic matter method — to asses organic matter changes in geologically immature environmental materials including soils, estuarine sediments, upland and coastal peats, microplastics, wood/charcoal and other biological/forensic materials (tyres/vegetation/paints). Rock-Eval requires between 10–60 mg material per analysis. For all peat and soil characterisation we offer calculated recalcitrance and lability indices (R and I index) in addition to the other parameters.
Iatroscan — thin layer chromatography to assess total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) to give saturate, aromatic and resion/asphaltene compound class concentrations enabling a rapid assessment of hydrocarbons whether in source rock or oil spill impacted sediment or soil.
Gas chromatography mass spectrometry�� (GC-MS) (Thermo Scientific Trace 1300 GC TSQ900 Triple quadrupole system) for the separation and measurement of:
- organic contaminants including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH 32 compounds), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), faecal stanols/sterols and others such as organo chlorinated pesticides (DDT)
- organism or process-specific biomarker compounds (e.g. steranes, triterpanes) using selected ion monitoring (SIM) or MS/MS
- molecular palaeothermometers such as alkenones for the UK37 and UḰ37 sea-surface temperature proxy
Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC/MS) (Ultrahigh performance HPLC-Thermo TSQ Quantiva MS/MS) for separation and measurement of
- organic contaminants such as pesticides, pharmaceuticals, including antibiotics, and xenoestrogens
- tetraether lipids (GDGT) and associated BIT index (the ratio between brGDGTs mainly produced by soil bacteria and aquatic crenarchaeol) for tracking carbon in the environment
- molecular palaeothermometers such as TEX 86 for the reconstruction of palaeosea-surface temperatures
Toxicity testing (Microtox Model 500) — we offer both the (aqueous) acute toxicity testing and (soils, sediment, drilling muds, sludges) solid-phase testing using the in-vitro bioluminescent bacteria Allivibrio fischeri. The solid phase test requires 7 g of material and the aqueous test requires 10 ml water. Toxicity evaluation by microtox complements individual compound determinations by GC/MS and LC/MS. Data reported as an EC₅₀ that can be benchmarked against published non-toxic, moderately toxic, acutely toxic assessment criteria.
Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), (Bio-Rad FTX3000MX), diffuse reflectance instrument that can be fitted with an autosampler for high-throughput evaluation of functional group chemistry of leaf litter, peats, soils, sediments, mudrock, rock and biological material.
Total organic carbon (TOC) and black carbon – elementar macro C analyser for the measurement of TOC (per cent), TIC and TC. Our combustion analyser is capable of analysing large samples (0.5 g dry weight) and thus provide solution to TOC evaluations in soils and sediments. We also offer precise and accurate measurement of black carbon (per cent) in soils and sediments using classical wet chemical methods combined with elemental analysis.
Pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (CDS 2500 pyroprobe) for the characterisation of structural polymers and macromolecules (polysaccharides, lignin, suberin and tannin) and geomacromolecules (kerogens and coal) present in biological, soils, sediments and rocks.
Gas chromatograph (Hewlett Packard 6890) fitted with flame ionisation detector (FID), used for the measurement of n-alkanes and fatty acids in soils, sediments and associated biological materials. Evaluation of n-alkane envelop, CPI, Pr+Ph/n-alkanes to indicate maturation, migration, biodegradation.

University collaborations

We collaborate with a variety of UK universities mainly via NERC doctoral training partnership schemes (DTP/CDT). We regularly host PhD students undertaking experimental work or laboratory analyses; a wide range of techniques and procedures are available. The students have access to the range of laboratory and applied scientific expertise of the organic geochemistry team and the wider BGS. Recent visitors include students from universities of Nottingham, Warwick, Reading, Birmingham, Newcastle, Durham, Cambridge, Hanoi and Nairobi.

Selected publications and reports

Kim, A W, Vane, C H, Moss-Hayes, V, Berriro, D B, Fordyce, F, Everrett, P, and Nathanail, P C. 2018. . Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. 108(2–3), 231–248. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1755691018000324

Vane, C H, Kim, A W, Moss-Hayes, V, Turner, G, Mills, K, Chenery, S R, Barlow, T S, Kemp, A C, Engelhart, S E, Hill, T D, Horton, B P, and Brain, M. 2020. . Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 151, 110721. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110721

Vane, C H, Lopes dos Santos, R A, Kim, A W, Moss-Hayes, V M, Fordyce, F M, and Bearcock, J M. 2019. . Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. 108(2–3), 299–314. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1755691018000294

Vane, C H, Turner, G H, Chenery, S R, Richardson, M, Cave, M C, Terrington, R, Gowing, C J B, and Moss-Hayes, V. 2020. . Environmental Science: Processes and Impacts 22, 364–380. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C9EM00430K

Girkin, N T, Vane, C H, Cooper H V, Moss-Hayes, V, Craigon, J, Turner, B L, Ostle, N, and Sjogersten, S. 2018. . Biogeochemistry, Vol. 142(2), 231–245. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-018-0531-1

Lopes dos Santos, R A, and Vane, C H. 2019. . Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Vol. 108(2–3), 289–298. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S175569101800035X

Mills, K, Vane, C H, Lopes dos Santos, R A, Ssemmanda, I, Leng, M J, and Ryves, D. 2018. . Journal of Quaternary Science Reviews, Vol. 202, 122–138. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.09.038

Upton, A, Vane, C H, Girkin, N, Turner, B, and Sjogersten, S. 2018. ��Geoderma, Vol. 326, 76–87. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.03.030

Pharaoh T C, Gent, M A, Hannis, S D, Kirk, K L, Monaghan, A A, Quinn, M F, Smith, N J P, Vane, C H, Wakefield, O, and Waters, C N. 2018. In Paleozoic Plays of NW Europe. Monagahan, A A, Underhill, J R, Hewett, A J, and Marshall, J E A (editors). Geological Society, London, Special Publications, Vol. 471. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1144/SP471.7

Waters, C N, Vane, C H, Kemp, S J, Haslam, R B, Hough, E, and Moss-Hayes, V. 2019. . Petroleum Geoscience, Vol. 26, 325–345. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1144/petgeo2018-039

Whitelaw, P, Uguna, C N, Stevens, L A, Meredith W, Snape, C E, Vane, C H, Moss-Hayes, V, and Carr, AD. 2019. . Nature Communications, Vol. 10(1), 1–10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11653-4.

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centre for environmental geochemistry geochemistry science facilities

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Aquifer Properties Facility

Jon-Paul Orsi — Mon, 16 Mar 2020 22:43:08 +0000

51�� staff in the Environmental change, adaptation and resilience (ECAR) science challenge area undertake routine and specialised core characterisation on drillcore and rock chippings from borehole and outcrop samples for a wide range of hydrogeological purposes.

The facility is based at the BGS Wallingford site but forms part of the environmental geochemistry suite of laboratories. It collaborates with other challenge areas to address increased demand for monitoring the impacts of activities in the subsurface and operates throughout the UK and, in some cases, internationally.

We are able to offer the following sample analyses:

core handling
sample preparation/subsampling: cutting/encapsulation
moisture content
porosity with density (liquid re-saturation)
porosity (helium) using caliper bulk volume
permeability (nitrogen gas)
probe/mini permeability (point)
specific yield/drainable porosity (centrifuge): consolidated
specific yield/drainable porosity (centrifuge): unconsolidated
pore-fluid extraction (including volatiles)
liquid permeability (falling head): unconsolidated
liquid permeability (pumped via coreholder)
permeability at elevated pressures (per point to 5000 psi)
porosity (helium injection) at elevated pressures (per point to 5000 psi)
mercury injection pore size distribution and porosity
particle size distribution (Mastersizer)
particle size distribution (wet, dry and motorised shaker)
individual or batch labelled sample photography
drainage capillary pressure (porous plate)
capillary pressure (multi-stage centrifuge)
electrical testing (Archie, Cementation Exponent)
full method and QA reporting

Data is available in a variety of formats and can be integrated into standard core or geophysical log outputs such as AGS* or ** software to provide colour composite plots, including optical or imagery at any scale required. Interpreted statistical outputs can be provided.

* Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists

** Registered trademark of ALT

Coring and core analysis is a cost-effective way of providing vital subsurface information required by geoscientists in groundwater, environmental, mineral, hydrocarbon and geotechnical investigations.

Hydrogeologists use core analysis data to determine flow and storage in aquifers and to consider their vulnerability to pollution. By attributing models with data, aquifer management is much easier.

In the mineral extractive industry, the objective of coring and core analysis is to characterise rock for an evaluation of reserves. A special case exists for mineral brines where fluid density and viscosity affect extraction.

In the hydrocarbon industry, the objective of coring and core analysis is to reduce uncertainty in reservoir evaluation by providing data representative of the reservoir and to provide information on how fluids will respond to pumping and pressure changes in the reservoir during extraction. The higher pressures and temperatures associated with these reservoirs (and to some extent deep geothermal investigations) and the mixture of fluids present make these studies much more complicated.

Used alone or in conjunction with other data, e.g. pore fluid geochemistry, field-scale hydraulic properties, pump test data and borehole logging, sample testing provides a powerful tool for investigating hydrogeology and reservoir properties, resolving problems in both the saturated and unsaturated zones.

We have extensive experience of testing operations in the UK and overseas for a wide range of clients including Government agencies, water industry and private sector consultancies.

Our testing service typically ranges from basic sample testing for a single borehole to comprehensive analyses and interpretation of borehole cores for a site or region, incorporating other hydrogeological data collated specifically or already available. Processing and interpretation of clients’ own data and its integration with other hydrogeological information is also undertaken. Tests conducted or reviewed are databased with strict client confidentiality.

We hold records and data from over half-a-million boreholes distributed throughout the UK and this information can be used to geologically classify and make regional interpretations of new data. The laboratory sample reference collection and datasets formed a basis for the Major and Minor Aquifer Properties Manuals and associated databases.

Aquifer properties manuals��

Allen, D J, Brewerton, L J, Coleby, L M, Gibbs, B R, Lewis, M A,��MacDonald, A M, Wagstaff, S J, and Williams, A T. 1997. . 51�� Technical Report WD/97/034; Environment Agency R&D Publication 8. (Unpublished.)

Jones, H K, Morris, B L, Cheney, C S, Brewerton, L J, Merrin, P D, Lewis, M A,��MacDonald, A M, Coleby, L M, Talbot, J C,��Mckenzie, A A,��Bird, M,J, Cunningham, J E, and Robinson, V. 2000. . 51�� Technical Report WD/00/004; Environment Agency R&D Publication 68. (Unpublished.)

51�� UK Geoenergies Observatories’ Glasgow Observatory and boreholes peripheral to the Cheshire Geoenergy Observatory
Nottingham Geoenergy Test Bed
DTC Penrith Sandstone study
Buckinghamshire Chalk study

Thames Water Plc
SRK
Environment Agency
Armenia Mining Co.

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centre for environmental geochemistry science facilities

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For further information please contact Andrew Butcher

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Dando Drilling Capability

Jon-Paul Orsi — Thu, 20 Feb 2020 20:32:52 +0000

The BGS Drilling Facility operates out of BGS Keyworth. The drilling team is comprised of staff from different science areas across BGS, all trained to an in-house level as either lead driller or assistant driller status. The facility has been in operation since the end of 2005 and uses a Dando Terrier 2002 rig to perform shallow drilling to depths of 10–15 m.

Drilling rig using the percussion method (left) and rotary corer (right).

Drilling using the continuous flight augers (left) and drilling rig using the hollow-stem auger (right).

Core recovery methods

The drill rig has three methods of recovering core depending on the geology being drilled.

The percussion mode is the main method used for the majority of situations. This method uses a drop hammer to drive a barrel into the ground in 1 m intervals to collect a full sample of the geology. The core is recovered in a plastic liner contained inside the barrel, which allows inspection of the core in the field.

The percussion method can use four barrel sizes, which provide core of 117 mm, 102 mm, 87 mm and 75��mm.

The method is suitable if you want to drill:

firm to indurated deposits, e.g. tills to weak mudstones
sand and gravel deposits
firmer mudstone deposits, e.g. Oxford Clay
soft, unconsolidated sediments, e.g. estuarine silts and clays, peats

Opaque liners can be obtained if you require photoluminescence analysis, for example.

The rotary corer is used for drilling harder materials. This method uses a rotary head and cutting bits on the barrel head to provide cores from rocks such as sandstone and limestone. The material is recovered in a plastic liner as in the percussion method, but the barrel is rotated into the ground under the weight of the drillhead.

This method returns a core sample of 84 mm in a plastic liner. The rotary corer is slightly slower than the percussion method and can be used for drilling indurated to well-indurated deposits, e.g. tills, mudstones, siltstones, sandstones.

The rotary augering method uses the rotary head with a selection of augers to core into softer sediments. The hollow-stem auger produces a larger bulk sample than a continuous flight auger.

Neither of these augering methods provides a core encased in a plastic liner, but usually recover material as bulk samples.

This method is suitable if you want to drill sand and gravel deposits or estuarine deposits with sand and gravel.

Research

The BGS Drilling Facility has been involved with a number of research themes. These have ranged from drilling estuarine sequences in the Thames basin looking at the depositional evolution of the River Thames to coring various glacial till deposits in Wales and trying to understand the deposition of basement till, glacial lake sediments and moraines. We have been involved with providing sample and installing piezometers at a test site on the River Trent floodplain to understand the groundwater response to rainfall. We have also played a large part in the re-mapping process of certain areas of the UK such as the Cretaceous of the Isle of Wight, the Jurassic in Oxfordshire and Quaternary deposits in Somerset.

Further improvement of our in situ downhole drilling tests means that the team now has the capability to perform standard penetration tests, cone penetration tests and dynamic probe tests. This has been used to determine the strength characteristics of landslides.

Drilling services

The team aims to provide a complete service and if necessary can provide additional services to a project. In particular the team have developed skills and contacts in:

searching for utilities and cables
organising the field site
recording all drilled core as a standard driller’s log (to BS5930)
remediation of the site after drilling has been completed
transfer and storage of all cores back to BGS Keyworth
registering of boreholes and logs in the BGS system
performing downhole tests and completing piezometer installation if necessary

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engineering and geotechnical capability science facilities

Soil Physics Facility

Jon-Paul Orsi — Wed, 19 Feb 2020 09:11:37 +0000

The physical structure of soil determines the rates at which water, nutrients and air moves through the soil profile and is the support structure for soil fauna, flora and microbial life. Knowledge of the nature and the components that make up the physical structure of soils is important in understanding the processes and functioning of different soil types.

Soil physical measurements

The facility has a Beckman Coulter LS 13320 laser diffraction particle size analyser which operates over a particle size range of 0.0399 to 2000 µm. Dry sieving is used to integrate particles > 2000 µm. The removal of soil organic matter is required prior to analysis, which is undertaken in house.

Soil aggregate formation is key to delivering good soil physical structure, helping to provide structure for water and nutrient movement band the protection of soil organic matter from decomposition. Thus the ability of aggregates to withstand disaggregation is an important factor in delivering good soil structure. Mineralogy and soil organic matter are important controlling influences. We have developed methods to use the Beckman Coulter LS 13320 laser diffraction particle size analyser to carry out aggregate stability measurements. Analysis is usually undertaken on 1–2 mm macro-aggregates, but other aggregate sizes can be measured. The advantage of this technique is that a consistent amount of energy is imparted to the particles undergoing analysis, allowing for reproducible measurements.

For field analysis of compacted soils the Soil Physics Facility has a Penetrometer logger with GPS to enable spatial surveys of soil compaction to take place.

The lab also has experience of implementing and running networks of soil moisture sensors to understand the influence of moisture on soil functioning. Modelling sensor results using Hydrus 1D is also undertaken.

Additional facilities

In addition to soil physical measurements, the facility offers or can access a range of complementary analyses to describe the degree to which soil organic matter is decomposed. These are typically rapid scanning or analysis techniques that provide qualitative estimates of properties but are useful as additional variables, particularly in developing models. Techniques include mid- and near-infrared scanning of soil particles (within the Organic Geochemistry Facility), as well as the use of laser fluorescence analysis of soils to identify the ‘humification index’.

The facility offers a range of chemical measurements including soil extractions. Assays include:

isotopic dilution techniques for assessing the ‘reactive pools’ of trace metals in soils
soil pore-water extraction techniques for measuring solution concentrations of elements allowing speciation using arrange of models
extractions in soils and sediments for key elements such as phosphorus

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centre for environmental geochemistry science facilities soil

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For more information please contact Dr Andrew Tye

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science facilities Archives - 51����

Offshore infrastructure foundation inspection methods

Offshore infrastructure foundation inspection methods

Offshore structures

Inspection of concrete grouts

Wave propagation through foundation models

Results

Diagnosing concrete condition in foundations

Field ultrasound inspection system

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Transport Properties and Fracture Physics Research Laboratories

Transport Properties and Fracture Physics Research Laboratories

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Research interests

Laboratory and field studies

Laboratory capability

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Rock Volume Characterisation Laboratory Cluster

Rock Volume Characterisation Laboratory Cluster

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Hydrothermal Laboratory

Hydrothermal Laboratory

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Organic Geochemistry Facility

Organic Geochemistry Facility

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Aquifer Properties Facility

Aquifer Properties Facility

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Dando Drilling Capability

Dando Drilling Capability

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Soil Physics Facility

Soil Physics Facility

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