In chemistry student Dorontina Domi first couple of months of her placement at BGS, she has rotated between different laboratories including organics, collagen extraction and modern environmental gas analysis. This has provided her with a broad experience of the different instruments and sample preparation techniques that are required within BGS Stable Isotope Facility (SIF). In this blog, Dorontina tells us about some of her experiences so far. 

Carbon and nitrogen isotopes in organic materials

A wide array of instruments in the SIF can be used to analyse the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) isotope composition of organic materials found in sediments, soils and plant materials. The bulk of the analysis is carried out using an Elementar isoprime precisION isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS) with a vario ISOTOPE cube elemental analyser (EA). The samples are combusted in the EA and are then passed onto the IRMS on a continuous flow of helium carrier gas, selected for its inertness and separation efficiency for measurement.

While learning sample preparation, I gained experience in using microbalances to weigh samples down to 200 micrograms (or 0.0002 grams), which is a miniscule amount that is challenging to see with the naked eye. I compacted the weighed sample material into either crucibles or capsules, depending on the instrument and their auto sampling methods.

When analysing these sample materials for C isotopes, it is important to understand whether the results are representing organic or inorganic C fractions contained in the material. Organic carbon consists of compounds sourced from living organisms and their remains, and inorganic carbon, such as from carbonates, is formed from biological and geological processes. The two forms of C have very distinct isotope compositions (inorganic C typically has more carbon-13 compared organic C) and even a small amount of inorganic C contamination in samples can offset target organic C isotope values.

Samples must therefore be treated to remove inorganic C prior to isotope analysis. I acidified samples using hydrochloric acid (HCl) and rinsed them with purified water, using a centrifuge to ensure thorough washing, until the pH tested neutral. This process dissolves the inorganic C fraction and isolates the organic C fraction.

SIF houses 13 mass spectrometers, so I have also gained experience in how staff conduct maintenance, such as on the Elementar IRMS. I assisted in replacing the consumables to ensure that the analyses are performed with a high precision and accuracy.

Carbon, nitrogen and sulfur isotopes in prehistoric bone samples

Comparing carbon, nitrogen and sulfur isotope ratios from carnivores and their prey allows us to distinguish the palaeo-diet of animals and the of different species. This allows us to interpret their relationships during different ages and draw inferences from the data on changes associated with climate differences. For example, the higher the nitrogen isotope composition (δ¹⁵N) the more ‘carnivore-like’ feeding habits took place, therefore the main prey for each species can be identified.

Statistical tools called Bayesian mixing models will be used as a framework to integrate the large proportion of data from throughout modern and Pleistocene times and to infer the relevant data. Through this, the project will assess how changes in climate and environment influenced the feeding behaviour of the wolves and their resilience during reductions in prey availability. This information is crucial to understand the influence climate change will have on the endangered species in the future and help conservation strategies.

As part of the sampling programme, I was given an opportunity to spend a day at the laboratories in London, where I observed the meticulous drilling process used to cut small pieces of material from a variety of different fossil species for later analysis. The samples were cut from areas that will minimise damage of the structural integrity of the bone for conservation purposes.

As well as fossil samples, the project is also analysing contemporary wolves from Croatia and their prey as a comparison. These samples are less than 100 years old and required an initial solvent treatment in the geomicrobiology lab before collagen extraction could begin.

I have also helped to prepare the samples for isotope analysis, where a multi-step process takes place to extract the collagen, before it is purified and analysed via the EA-IRMS.

Carbon isotopes in methane samples

Another aspect of my training coversÌýanalysing methane (CH₄) gas samples for their carbon isotope composition using a Sercon HS2022 with CyroGas.

This instrument works by purifying the sample gas via carbon dioxide (CO₂) traps and a cryogenic gas trap to remove any other sources of carbon present that are not from CH₄, thus reducing potential sources of contamination. The sample gas then flows through a combustion tube, where the CH₄ is converted to CO₂ and cryogenic trapping takes place, ensuring that the CO₂ is concentrated in the final trap and can be released to the mass spectrometer rapidly. This allows for a narrow, sharp peak that can be analysed and replicated with a high precision. I also hope to help with the analysis of hydrogen (H) isotopes via the pyrolysis of CH₄ to H₂.

Working at BGS as a student

If you are an undergraduate student looking for an opportunity within stable isotopes, I highly recommend BGS. Not only is it the largest UK producer of stable isotope data, but it is also a supportive workplace to be a part of. There are a variety of clubs to involve yourself in such as the BGS Wilding Group. Staff and volunteers maintain the natural areas at BGS to promote wildlife biodiversity, as a commitment to sustainability.

I would like to extend a massive thank you to everyone at the Stable Isotope Facility for welcoming me with such support and excitement. It has been an incredible start to the placement and I am looking forward to the rest of the year!

About the author 

Dorontina Domi is an undergraduate chemistry student at the University of Surrey, completing her industrial placement at SIF, which is located at BGS headquarters in Keyworth, Nottinghamshire. 

My week began with a welcome tour of the research facilities at BGS and, more specifically, the geochemistry laboratories. The team provided an introduction to the field of mass spectrometry and the use of isotopes in archaeological research. The sample preparation, which happens under very precise, controlled conditions to exclude contamination, involves a huge amount work prior to analysis. It wasn’t long before I was gaining hands-on experience working with carbon isotopes from organic and inorganic materials, preparing samples and then analysing them on mass spectrometers. For me, one of the highlights was learning how to handle samples down to 40 micrograms in weight — which I can confirm is difficult to see with the naked eye!  

Geoarchaeology 

Dr Angela Lamb is well known for being one of the leading geochemists on the research into and analysis of King Richard III remains. She took the time to talk to me about the relevance and application of geochemistry in archaeological contexts. In relation to King Richard III, her detailed analysis has revealed various fascinating details about his life, for example that he lived in different locations through his childhood and into his adult years. Bones in our bodies reflect our diet and location (due to the underlying geology that creates different soil chemistries in different areas) and this type of analysis has been used in countless archaeological investigations — as featured in the TV programme ! Ìý

The BGS collections 

I was also taken on a tour of the BGS collections by Louise Neep. It was so exciting to see them in person, especially the vast fossil collections. Louise explained how conservation methods have evolved since the 18th century. I was able to see fossils that are up to 500 million years old and inspected ancient plants, trilobites and an ichthyosaur. It was thrilling to hold such ancient relics in my hands. Louise gave me a real appreciation for all the curation efforts that are taken by BGS staff members like Louise to preserve the relics for future scientific research.  

The week ended with an excellent conversation with Dan Condon, who works on dating meteorites. He explained how uranium–lead dating is used and the physics and chemistry involved, which was particularly relevant to my aspirations to be an astrophysicist.  

Overall, this was a very informative and exciting week that introduced me to various facets of laboratory life, which is very different to what we see at school. It has enhanced my understanding of which skills are essential for laboratory work, for example the high-precision, detail-oriented work on the samples, and the importance of handling scientific data. The week made me appreciate science methods and gain confidence that research in astrophysics is the ideal career for me.  

Thanks 

Thanks to all the staff at BGS who were very helpful, especially Charlotte Hipkiss, Jack Lacey, Kotryna Savickaite, Diksha Bista, Dan Condon, David King, Doris Wagner and Carol Arrowsmith. 

About the author 

Riveen Pehesara Kumanayaka is an aspiring astrophysicist who is currently studying for his A levels in physics, maths, computer science and English literature. 

Studying the diet of an animal that roams the Earth today is relatively straightforward. Their eating habits can be easily tracked and their food sources monitored using their faecal matter (‘scat’). But how do you study the diet of animals that have been dead for thousands of years? The NERC/51ÁÔÆæ-funded project ‘Hungry like a wolf’, carried out by BGS together with Royal Holloway University London, aims to do exactly that: study the diets of wolves that lived in Britain during the last 250 000 years.

Investigating ancient animals’ diets

The project adopts the adage ‘we are what we eat’. The type of diets an animal consumes are imprinted on the wear and tear on their teeth and the stable isotope signature in their body tissues. For animals that are no longer alive, studying these signatures in fossil bones and teeth provides a window into the animal diet and consequently into how their diets have changed over time with fluctuating climatic and ecological conditions. The project aims to understand how wolves have adapted to changing environments by comparing the diet of past (10 000 to 250 000 years) and present wolves, along with other predators and prey from different locations across Europe.ÌýÌý

Top ice age predators

Although they were the first animals to be domesticated by humans, wolves were well-established members of the Pleistocene (ice age) carnivore community in Europe. As one of the top predators, wolves keep the populations of their prey in check and, as a knock-on effect, affect the biodiversity of other predators in the area as well as other animal and plant species further down the food chain by limiting over-predation and over-browsing on vegetation. Wolves are therefore considered the most influential large predator in the northern Eurasia region.  

Project aims

Unfortunately, many surviving populations of these charismatic animals are today endangered because of human persecution and environmental change. Serious concerns exist as to the viability of European wolf populations under different scenarios of environmental and climate change. It is therefore essential to understand how wolves have adapted to changing circumstances in the past, so that current and future conservation policy can be appropriately tailored.

The project is being carried out by Dr Angela Lamb and Dr Diksha Bista at BGS, together with Prof Danielle Schreve, Dr Fabienne Pigière and Dr Amanda Burtt (Royal Holloway University London). It will involve museum collections from across the UK.

The collections housed here at BGS were some of the first to be analysed. These collections comprise Quaternary (up to 2.58 million years ago) subfossil bone material that has been held in the museum since the late 1800s. Specimens were collected from Ilford by Richard Payne Cotton and donated in 1877, whilst those from Crayford are from the collection of Frederick Spurrell, donated in 1894.

Although the material was collected over 150 years ago, advancing research technologies allow us to uncover new information that can enhance our understanding of past environments and ecosystems. Even though the subsampling involves removing a small amount of material from the selected bones, the insights gained from the analysis can add significantly to the understanding of the fossils held in the collection since the Victorian era.

Louise Neep, BGS Museum Curator.

Laboratory analysis

In the laboratory, collagen will be extracted from the bones and analysed for nitrogen (N), carbon (C) and sulfur (S) isotopes. Recent technical developments within the Stable Isotope Facility now allow the measurement of these isotopes on a significantly smaller amount of collagen (10 times smaller). This advance means much less sample needs to be removed from the fossils, thus preserving the integrity of precious museum specimens.Ìý

Acknowledgements

We’d like to thank Paul Shepherd (collections manager) and Simon Harris (conservator) for their support with the project.

About the authors

First and foremost, I’m Patrick and studying chemistry, geography and maths at A Level. For a week in July 2023, I was on work experience at BGS. I’ve had a passion for geology since I was brought to the Keyworth site for BGS open days, and I’m now intending to pursue a career in the subject.

The theme for week followed the journey of a borehole through BGS, which led to engaging with many areas and activities, including:

• a tour of the National Geological Repository (aka the Core Store)
• an introduction to 3D scanning of fossils with Simon Harris, the collections conservation and digitisation manager
• digital borehole logging and some 3D modelling with Steve Thorpe, a geospatial data specialist    
• meetings with members of communications team — Lee, Penny, Jade and Michael
• chatting with PhD student Ellis Hammond about his research on new digital tools to help speed up the redevelopment of brownfield land
• an introduction to the Core Scanning Facility and digital borehole data with petrophysicist Mark Fellgett

The borehole journey through BGS starts with sinking a borehole into the ground using specialised rock coring equipment. Borehole depths can range from 5 to 5000 m into the ground, each one providing unique insights into the world beneath our feet. A special drill bit is used to collect a core of the rock, which is then extracted, packaged up and transported back to the National Geological Repository at BGS Keyworth, where it registered.

The rock core is logged during a visual inspection of the different rock layers present in the sample. Many of the borehole logs and cores at BGS are from before the age of computers, handwritten on paper from as early as the mid-1800s. These older, handwritten logs are currently being converted into digital logs, with further scans being taken of the paper copies. They can then be input into software to build 3D models of the subsurface or used to create large-scale maps of the geology below our feet.

The core is then scanned, photographed and tested to gather data on its properties. For example, gamma rays can be used to test the density of a rock, P-waves can be used to measure the porosity, and X-rays, infrared spectroscopy and some chemical tests develop a picture of the rock properties.

Borehole data is being used to inform the transition to net zero. BGS researches the properties of rocks and the subsurface environment to work out if they can be used to store large quantities of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from industry and power generation. This area of applied research is called carbon capture and storage (CCS) and the technology is a means of reducing the amount of CO₂ that is released into the atmosphere.

CCS is the process of injecting CO­₂ under high pressure (so it is more like a liquid than a gas) into porous sedimentary rocks in areas such as old oil or gas fields, which are then filled with salty water. Boreholes are key in deciding which areas are suitable for CCS, as they allow scientists to work out which rocks can store CO₂, how much CO­₂ they can hold and whether it is likely to escape in the future. 

Boreholes are also used to access geothermal energy present underground, for example using the water from abandoned mines. This water can store plenty of heat, depending on a range of factors. The water is pumped up to the surface where the heat can be extracted and used to provide a sustainable heat source. This reduces the need for CO₂-producing fossil-fuel power plants.

All in all, my week at BGS has been valuable in demonstrating the fascinating research that occurs here, and the broad range of skills that people need to conduct it. It has given me plenty of motivation to aim for a career in geology. nassive thank you to Dr Darren Beriro for organising my visit and to Steve Thorpe and Mark Fellgett for looking after me on a day-to-day basis.

Geologists have found the fossil of the earliest known animal predator. The 560-million-year-old specimen is the first of its kind, but it is related to the group that includes corals, jellyfish and anemones living on the planet today.

The palaeontologists who discovered it have named it ‘Auroralumina attenboroughii‘ in honour of Sir David Attenborough. The first part of its name is Latin for ‘dawn lantern’, in recognition of its great age and resemblance to a burning torch.

It was found in Charnwood Forest, near Leicester in England, which is famous for its fossils. In 1957, a fern-like impression in stone turned out to be one of the oldest fossilised animals, Charnia masoni.

Sir David Attenborough  ‘truly delighted’ with his new namesake

When I was at school in Leicester I was an ardent fossil hunter. The rocks in which Auroralumina has now been discovered were then considered to be so ancient that they dated from long before life began on the planet. So I never looked for fossils there.

A few years later a boy from my school found one and proved the experts wrong. He was rewarded by his name being given to his discovery. Now I have — almost — caught up with him and I am truly delighted.

Sir David Attenborough.

Sir David is referring to Roger Mason, after whom Charnia masoni was named.

When did modern groups appear?

The discovery of Auroralumina, reported in, throws into question when modern groups of animals appeared on Earth. Dr Phil Wilby, palaeontology lead at BGS, is one of the scientists who made the find.

It generally held that modern animal groups like jellyfish appeared 540 million years ago, in the Cambrian Explosion, but this predator predates that by 20 million years.

It the earliest creature we know of to have a skeleton. So far we’ve only found one, but it massively exciting to know there must be others out there, holding the key to when complex life began on Earth.

Dr Phil Wilby, BGS Palaeontology Lead.

When and where was it found?

Palaeontologists still flock to the forest to examine its Ediacaran Period fossils, aged between 635 and 538.8 million years. In 2007, Phil Wilby and others from BGS spent over a week cleaning a 100 m-square rock surface with toothbrushes and pressure jets. They took a rubber mould of the whole surface and captured the impression of over 1000 fossils — and one stood out from the crowd.

Dr Frankie Dunn from the Oxford University Museum of Natural History carried out the detailed study.

This is very different to the other fossils in Charnwood Forest and around the world.

Most other fossils from this time have extinct body plans and it not clear how they are related to living animals. This one clearly has a skeleton, with densely packed tentacles that would have waved around in the water capturing passing food, much like corals and sea anemones do today.

It nothing like anything else we’ve found in the fossil record at the time.

Dr Frankie Dunn, Oxford University Museum of Natural History.

Dunn calls the specimen a ‘lonely little fossil’ and thinks it originated from shallower water than the rest of the fossils found in Charnwood.

The ancient rocks in Charnwood closely resemble ones deposited in the deep ocean on the flanks of volcanic islands, much like at the base of Montserrat in the Caribbean today.

All of the fossils on the cleaned rock surface were anchored to the sea floor and were knocked over in the same direction by a deluge of volcanic ash sweeping down the submerged foot of the volcano, except one: A. attenboroughii.

It lies at an odd angle and has lost its base, so appears to have been swept down the slope in the deluge.

Dr Frankie Dunn.

A. attenboroughii was dated at BGS headquarters in Keyworth, Nottingham, using zircons in the surrounding rock. Zircon is a tiny radioactive mineral that acts as a geological clock: it assesses how much uranium and lead are present. From that, geologists can determine precisely how old the rock is.

The ‘Cambrian Explosion’ was remarkable. It known as the time when the anatomy of living animal groups was fixed for the next half a billion years.

Our discovery shows that the body plan of the cnidarians [corals; jellyfish; sea anemones, etc.] was fixed at least 20 million years before this, so it hugely exciting and raises many more questions.

Dr Frankie Dunn.