North Lanarkshire has an industrialised past, including a significant coal mining legacy. Created by BGS alongside WSP UK and North Lanarkshire Council (NLC), the new coal mine gas risk decision-support tool helps to provide a preliminary risk assessment of coal mine gas emissions in North Lanarkshire. The tool utilises publicly available data and information from BGS and the Mining Remediation Authority on the subsurface to inform an instant risk zone rating for any 50 × 50 m grid cell within the North Lanarkshire area.

The tool is now live and being used by NLC to identify areas at potential risk of coal mine gas emissions and communicate them to relevant planning applications for new building or housing developments, helping to manage the risk.

After two years of research and development, we are pleased that the coal mine gas risk decision support tool is now live. It is underpinned by data and geoscience and enables NLC to identify and communicate potential risks so that these can be managed by planning applications for new builds.

We will continue to update and enhance the tool and hope to be able to expand it to be used by other councils across Scotland in the future to help manage risk.

Darren Beriro, principal geoscientist at BGS who led the development of the tool.

The new tool provides information about the risk of mine gas emissions on land across North Lanarkshire, helping inform development decisions and planning applications. By giving consistent, accurate information, the tool avoids the need for additional investigations where there is a negligible risk and allows development to progress more quickly. Where there is an increased risk from mine gas, the tool helps direct developers to expertise, advice and support on the actions required to address the risks and put in place controls to allow the development to progress.

Mark Findlay, pollution control and public health manager at North Lanarkshire Council.

In addition to the best available data from the BGS and MRA, WSP UK have developed Risk Zone Advisories within the tool and it is the combination of these items that enables NLC to consistently and efficiently screen and communicate preliminary risks to planning applicants and developers.

We are excited to see the tool in use after a long collaborative effort and hope to introduce it across other areas with significant coal mining legacy.

Aliyssa Glen, principal consultant at WSP who led the development of the tool within WSP.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are known as ‘forever chemicals’ due to their durability and widespread presence in the environment. Some PFAS are known to have adverse impacts on human health and the environment if concentrations are present above specific thresholds.

A new , co-authored by BGS and the Environment Agency, has revealed data around the presence of PFAS in shallow English soils that will allow scientists to better understand background concentrations. The Environment Agency commissioned the study to assess the feasibility and suitability of using archived samples at BGS to support the analysis of contemporary samples. This is part of a larger programme of work to improve understanding of the anthropogenic background concentrations of PFAS in shallow soils in England.

The results found PFAS to be present in all new and archived samples, with PFAS concentrations generally being higher in the contemporary samples. It is too early to determine if this is a result of a genuine increase in concentrations or another factor, such as the degradation of samples over time. The research does confirm the presence of these substances over this timescale, but does not attempt to assess any potential risks to human health or the environment.

Our research reveals that PFAS are widespread and persistent in the natural soils we sampled in England, which highlights the need for a comprehensive national survey. Investigating the presence and distribution of the background concentrations of artificial chemicals such as PFAS in soil is a key part of creating shared independent evidence that informs the risks they pose to people and the environment.

This study is a great example of how BGS uses its independent expertise to collaborate with Government and its agencies to create new geoscientific information and data on chemicals in soils.

Dr Darren Beriro, BGS Principal Geoscientist.

The global science on PFAS is evolving rapidly and we are working with partners, including BGS, to better understand their prevalence in our environment.

Though ongoing research is needed, the results of this study are useful for understanding how these chemicals may degrade over time.

We continue to test for PFAS in the environment, including regular testing for more than 50 different PFAS in water, and we work closely with several partners, including local authorities, to assess and manage any environmental risks from contaminated land.

Environment Agency.

The paper has highlighted the need for further research, including systematic surveying of UK soils, to investigate the distribution of PFAS concentrations and the potential impact on human health and the environment.

For more information, please contact 51ÁÔÆæ press (bgspress@bgs.ac.uk) or call 07790 607 010.

My name is Maureene Auma Ondayo and I am a 51ÁÔÆæ-funded PhD candidate at the University of Eldoret, Kenya, and BGS, with a background in environmental and public health. In this blog I will share my PhD research, investigating major and trace element exposure in the environment. This includes ores, soils, sediment and waters, locally grown staple food crops (maize, leafy vegetables, pulses and tubers), and human samples (hair, nails and urine). My research also incorporates risk factors of exposure to potentially harmful elements (PHEs) and associated health implications among artisanal and small-scale gold mining workers and local residents.  

What is artisanal and small-scale gold mining?  

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) is an informal mining sector that provides subsistence-level livelihoods for many rural communities across the world. In Kenya, ASGM occurs in Migori, Narok, Siaya, Vihiga, Kakamega, Nandi, Kisumu, Turkana, West Pokot, Marsabit, Homa Bay and Kericho counties. It is estimated that ASGM production yields around 5 metric tons per year (worth around £250 million), employing 250 000 workers with more than 1 million dependents. The main environmental and health risks associated with ASGM relate to poor conditions at mining camps and mining operations, which include the extensive misuse of mercury in the production process.   

Mining the gold 

Miners often rely on local knowledge when prospecting for gold after which agricultural land and pristine forests are cleared to make way for the mine. Ores are excavated and broken into smaller pieces using sledgehammers and mills, dispersing large volumes of contaminated dust across nearby environments and communities. Milled ore powder is then wetted and sluiced to extract the gold particles. Panning separates gold-associated sediment particles, then liquid mercury is added, which joins together with the gold to form an amalgam and separates it from the sediment. The amalgam is then burnt on open flames, vaporising the mercury and leaving behind the gold, whilst tailings and wastewater from ASGM are disposed of in nearby farms, residences, playgrounds and waterways. 

These activities expose the workers and local populations to extreme health and safety hazards, with injuries, diseases and premature deaths reported in ASGM areas.  

Hazards of ASGM 

Exposure to potentially toxic elements (PTEs), physical hazards, gaseous emissions, overexertion, physical injuries and poor ventilation inside the mines are the key hazards to human health in ASGM. This exposure results in a wide range of health disorders including:  

• cancers 
• immunity suppression 
• neurological disorders 
• developmental health effects  

Socio-economic issues related to mining activities are also present in local areas, including alcohol and addiction, violence and HIV/AIDs.  

My research 

During my PhD, I investigated the environmental and human exposure and health implications among nineteen ASGM communities in Kakamega and Vihiga counties, Kenya. 

I collected soil, sediment, water, locally grown food and human biomarker samples (hair, nails and urine) from ASGM workers and residents of ASGM villages and analysed them for major and trace elements at BGS Inorganic Geochemistry Facility in Keyworth. Further risk factors from PTE exposure and potential health effects among the studied ASGM communities were assessed through interviews.  

Study results 

Kakamega and Vihiga counties are naturally enriched with macro- and micro-elements and the ASGM activities primarily disperse them across surrounding environments and communities. The results show that:  

• soils, sediments and water sources in the ASGM villages were highly polluted by PTEs, including arsenic, mercury, chromium, lead and nickel 
• soil concentrations of arsenic, chromium and nickel in the studied ASGM villages were 154, 9 and 4 times higher than background concentrations, respectively 
• drinking-water samples in the ASGM villages, including springs, shallow wells and mine shafts, were heavily polluted with arsenic, lead and chromium. Very worryingly, we observed mine workers and residents drinking mine-shaft water, the most contaminated water at the ASGMs, when they were extracting the ore!  
• locally grown staple food crops were also contaminated with arsenic, nickel, lead, chromium, cadmium, mercury and aluminium, and were not considered safe for consumption  

The inhalation of gaseous PHEs like mercury during amalgam burning, the consumption of locally grown staple food crops and drinking water, and ingesting PTE-contaminated dust and soils (especially children and pregnant women that exhibit pica, that is, eating non-food items like soil) were the main exposure pathways found in our study. Self-reported potential pollution-related health effects included cancers, neurological effects, respiratory infections, musculoskeletal effects, infectious diseases including HIV/AIDS, and malaria.    

Working with the ASGM community 

A key aspect of my PhD was the multidisciplinary research approach taken to understand the relationships between the environment, diet and public health to effectively assess and communicate human exposure and health risks. We continue to collaborate with ASGM workers, local communities and local health practitioners while sharing our findings.  

On 2 December 2023, we met with county public health administrators to understand how best to present and share the data for interpretation with our key stakeholders. These include: 

• politicians 
• broader county employees 
• the departments of mining, environment, and law enforcement 
• community health workers 
•  the studied ASGM communities in both Kakamega and Vihiga counties 

Additional meetings with public health officers, medical practitioners, environment and agricultural departments and other key stakeholders are planned. This will let us share our results and recommendations on reducing PTE exposure through environmental, occupational and public health safety controls, such as: 

• providing safer drinking water to ASGM communities 
• relocating residences and schools away from ASGM activities  
• controlling dust transfer 
• encouraging regular personal protective equipment (PPE) use 
• alternatives to mercury 
• safer cyanidation operations 
• wet milling 
• technological interventions in ore exploration, excavation, processing and recovery 
• targeted education and training on industrial hygiene 
• public health policy formulation in ASGM in Kenya 

This study characterised PHE exposure pathways and health risks among ASGM communities in the Kakamega gold belt. Our findings are valuable to public health authorities as they inform them of the mitigation actions that are needed to research further, reduce exposure, improve ASGM processes, and protect the environment, food sources and the health of ASGM workers and residents, including policy formulation. 

About the author 

Maureene Auma Ondayo is a 51ÁÔÆæ-funded PhD candidate at the University of Eldoret, Kenya, and BGS, with a background in environmental and public health. 

Co-authors  

Prof Odipo Osano is an environmental toxicologist at the University of Eldoret, Kenya. He has a background in veterinary medicine, public health, and community and laboratory-based environmental epidemiological research.   

Clive Mitchell, BGS Industrial Minerals Geologist.   

Dr Olivier Humphrey, BGS Environmental Chemist.   

Dr Michael Watts, BGS Head of Inorganic Geochemistry and lead for BGS International Geoscience Research and Development.   

In south England and the Midlands, about 70 per cent of drinking water is sourced from groundwater. This groundwater is home to a wide variety of microscopic organisms that have interactive relationships with the surrounding abiotic and biotic environments, together constituting the groundwater microbial ecosystem. These microbes provide useful services, including pathogenic microbe inactivation and pollutant biodegradation: essentially, the microbes help maintain the quality of the groundwater we consume.

With increasing scientific understanding of groundwater ecosystem services, the water supply companies and Government agencies that are responsible for environmental and public health are paying more attention and investigating the best ways to protect undisturbed groundwater ecosystems. However, this can be difficult because the groundwater and microorganisms are out of sight, making it very tricky to study them. There is also no clear knowledge about what an undisturbed baseline microbial ecosystem should look like or how it can be protected.

This problem is the focus of my PhD, which I am working on at the BGS office in Wallingford, Oxfordshire. For fieldwork, I need to travel all over the Midlands to collect microbial samples from groundwater, which is why I recently travelled to Nottinghamshire and buddied up with Ankita Bhattacharya, another BUFI student who is based at BGS headquarters in Keyworth.

Our fieldwork was carried out at the groundwater pumping stations of Severn Trent Water, where raw groundwater is pumped before it is sent to the supply chain. We collected samples to determine environmental DNA (eDNA), nutrients and the age of the groundwater and we recorded different physiochemical parameters like pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen and groundwater temperature in as many as 11 locations in and around Nottingham.

Having a field buddy made the otherwise exhausting fieldwork experience truly enjoyable for both of us. We got a chance to explore Nottinghamshire in a different way and have seen huge farmlands, chaotic animal farms, dense forests, peaceful villages, quiet lanes and busy roads. We drove on roads with both smooth concrete and no concrete at all, across landscapes with gentle, sloping floodplains and up steep hill roads with hairpin bends, all of which made the experience memorable.

The eDNA we collected will be sequenced to identify the different microbial species present in groundwater. I will then compare the ecosystem collected from the groundwaters of different regions to find variations in undisturbed ecosystems. As part of my project, I will also address the reasons for microbial ecosystem variations and take samples for environmental variables through sampling for chemical analysis of dissolved organic matter, dissolved nitrogen and dissolved carbon.

Funding

Both of Archita and Ankita are studying under the .

About the authors

Archita Bhattacharyya (Wallingford) and Ankita Bhattacharya (Keyworth) are both BUFI PhD students studying at BGS.

The update to the radon potential map of Great Britain, produced by the UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA) and BGS, is the first in over 10 years and provides an authoritative analysis of the likelihood of a building being in a ‘Radon Affected Area’ (an area with higher radon potential). 

Radon (chemical symbol: Rn) is a colourless and odourless gas that 1100 lung cancer deaths per year are attributed to in the UK. The risk is highest among smokers and ex-smokers.

For most people, the risk of developing lung cancer from exposure to radon remains low and levels of radon have not increased across the UK. However, UKHSA advises you to test your home if you live or work in a Radon Affected Area. There are several methods of reducing high radon levels in buildings.

The latest update to the , available to view on the , is the product of years of new analysis and research, combining the latest geological mapping with one of the largest databases of in-home measurements ever compiled. 

Whilst the vast majority of buildings remain outside Radon Affected Areas, this new map has refined our knowledge of areas where high radon levels are more likely to occur. The overall number of buildings with high radon levels remains the same.

The radon map allows local councils, national and regional governments, social and private landlords, private homeowners and employers to assess the radon risk in their properties. It is also used in building regulations to inform where radon preventative measures should be incorporated in new buildings.

While the vast majority of buildings remain outside Radon Affected Areas, if the property you own is in an affected area, it is important that you arrange for a test. If you live in private or social rented accommodation, speak to your landlord, who should organise a test for you to carry out.

Employers can use this map to help undertake a suitable and sufficient risk assessment and take appropriate action where necessary.

The updated maps provide information that allows property owners, landlords and employers to make informed decisions on the benefits of undertaking radon measurements and potential remediation work.

Tracy Gooding, principal radiation protection scientist at UKHSA.

Radon occurs in all rocks and soils. Using a revised statistical approach to our mapping of geology across Great Britain has enabled us to model where this geohazard is more likely to be present in buildings.

This map is a significant update to the previously published version and will help to raise awareness about this geohazard.

Russell Lawley, BGS Principal Geologist.

UKHSA has published . Further information on of radon are also available.

Radon data available through BGS

• A GIS compatible version of the indicative atlas is available to download free of charge on the BGS website.
• The definitive atlas is available at 25m resolution and can be licensed for use within a GIS. Further information on costs and limitations of use are also available on the Radon Potential dataset webpage.
• Individual property probabilities can be found either from a or by obtaining a . For large property portfolios a property risk assessment can be undertaken. Further information is available on the website.

is valuable for its ability to conduct electricity and heat; it is used in electrical products, as a corrosion-resistant metal, in construction, household products and transportation.

Copper mining in Zambia

Zambia, in southern central Africa, has been a mining powerhouse for well over 100 years and is one of the largest copper producers in Africa. Mining is crucial to the Zambian economy and is responsible for three-quarters of Zambia export earnings.

The main copper mining region in Zambia is the Copperbelt Province, centred on the cities of Kitwe and Ndola. The largest copper mines are Kansanshi, Konkola, Lumwana and Mufilira in the Copperbelt Province, and Sentinel in the North-western Province.

Many years of mining in the Copperbelt have resulted in the production of a large volume of waste material. Much of this is slag from the copper refining process and contains elements such as chromium, which is known to be a potentially harmful element (PHE).

Collaboration with Copperbelt University

The Inorganic Geochemistry Facility at BGS began a research collaboration with the Copperbelt University in Kitwe in 2014, through the Royal Society-DfID-funded ‘Strengthening African capacity in soil geochemistry’ project, with in-country partners Prof Kakoma Maseka and Dr Godfrey Sakala (Zambian Agriculture Research Institute). The aim of the project was to increase the understanding of soil geochemical processes to support policies in agriculture and public health through PhD projects in Malawi, Zimbabwe and Zambia.

Elliott Hamilton, an environmental chemist at BGS, began his part-time PhD on chromium in crops in November 2014, aligned with Zambian Royal Society-DfID PhD student Belinda Kaninga, and undertook some reconnaissance fieldwork to understand the spatial variation in PHEs for agricultural soil in close proximity to a copper tailings dam near Kalulushi. Belinda subsequently used this site to investigate soil-to-crop transfer of PHEs and the impact of different agricultural management practices (liming; organic reincorporation) on PHE bioavailability.

Clive Mitchell, an industrial minerals geologist, is a relative newcomer to this research collaboration and was brought in to explore the potential for research in Zambia on critical raw materials and other mineral resources.

Next steps for the collaboration

In May 2022, Clive and Elliott set off on the long journey to Kitwe. Three flights and 25 hours later they arrived for a week-long set of workshops, meetings and field excursions (including a visit to a copper mine waste heap and a local silica sand mine) with the Copperbelt University Centre of Excellence in Sustainable Mining (CBU-ACESM), to work out the next steps for the research collaboration.

Following a series of successful stakeholder workshops and discussions with CBU-ACESM, it was agreed that research would continue into the environmental contamination posed by the copper refinery slag stockpiles in the Kitwe area. A CBU-ACESM-funded PhD studentship will investigate spatial and temporal changes in human health risk assessment (HHRA) at the ‘Black Mountain’, a 20-million tonne smelter slag dump in Kitwe. This studentship will align with BGS International Geoscience Research and Development (IGRD) programme, particularly the project ‘Mineral mine waste: whole system approach’. The aim of the research is to understand the geochemical factors that may affect PHE availability and exposure during the reworking of slag stockpiles for critical raw materials.

One of the most recent developments in the region was the signing, on 29 April 2022, of the ’Zambia and Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) Cooperation Agreement on the Establishment of a Value Chain in the Electric Vehicle and Clean Energy Sectors’. The aim is to manufacture electric vehicle batteries using the mineral resources of . One very likely area of research collaboration that Clive will follow up will be on Zambian battery raw materials with an emphasis on , which mainly occur in the Eastern Province of Zambia.

The BGS team returned (29 hours on the way back!) with a renewed research collaboration with the CBU-ACESM that works towards a safer, cleaner, lower-carbon future.

• about Clive and Elliott trip to Zambia.

Funding

This work is part of the BGS International Geoscience Research and Development programme.

As cities across the UK strive to breathe life into formerly industrialised areas, there is growing concern about potential negative effects on human health and the surrounding environment from concentrations of potentially harmful elements (PHEs) found in soil.

It is therefore essential to understand not only the total concentration and spatial extent of PHEs in urban soils but also, through bioaccessibility measurements, the potential hazard they pose to human health. This knowledge can then be used by planners and developers to help minimise potential health impacts and provide guidance on the best redevelopment land use.

Scientists at BGS applied a geochemical modelling and mapping approach to predict the human availability (bioaccessibility) of PHEs to over 700 surface soil samples taken from Stoke-on-Trent and believe the method could be applied to an archive of soil samples held by BGS from numerous urban centres.

The research is published in the open access journal , published monthly online by MDPI.

The modelling found that the county former industrial heritage influenced the concentrations of bioaccessible arsenic and lead. The method, which combines soil samples with unified BARGE method and random forest modelling, could help to predict the bioaccessibility of soil contaminants in other urban cities.

Mapping of predictive data is essential to support urban redevelopers and policy frameworks when it comes to identifying and prioritising sites for suitable regeneration.

Developing bioaccessibility maps using our modelling and mapping approach provides an important resource for contaminated land risk assessments and land-use planning, and could be applied as a standard approach for other urban centres.

Joanna Wragg, lead author, BGS.

The industry of Stoke-on-Trent has left a landscape rich in industrial heritage characterised by once-widespread bottle kilns, canals, wharfage and disused railways.

Once home to the pottery industry in England, it is documented that over 100 potteries have emerged in the county since the 1700s. The manufacture of colours and chemicals for potteries, glazed brick manufacturers, glassmakers and enamellers was common across the region, their variety and decorative colour dependent on metal oxides.

Stoke-on-Trent was also home to numerous steel and iron works, the largest being the Shelton Bar Steelworks, which stretched across the Etruria Valley and, at its height, employed a workforce of 10 000 and included multiple coal mines, steelworks, rolling mills and blast furnaces before finally closing in 2000.

Naturally elevated concentrations of PHEs are also found in the coal measures that surround the city. The Staffordshire coalfield supported the development of Stoke-on-Trent as an industrial city.

The rapid growth of the local pottery and steel industries, and the supporting large coal industry, resulted in widespread urban growth that combined residential, retail and industrial developments. Today, regeneration of the city has re-purposed these once industrial areas of potentially contaminated land for new industrial, residential and community use.

It is precisely this range and distribution of past and present industrial activity in urban areas like Stoke-on-Trent that provides a challenge for understanding the complex mixtures of contaminants in soils, which in turn are heavily influenced by geological and environmental processes. Ìý

Soils act as sinks and sources of PHEs, which in turn are heavily influenced by the underlying geology, environmental processes and the way in which previous land use determined the nature and deposition of contaminants.

We chose to study the concentrations, bioaccessibility and spatial distribution of arsenic and lead as common priority soil contaminants for human health risk assessment. Use of this model suggests the source of both of these elements is driven by heavy industrial and human activity.

Understanding these sources of contamination and, as a result, the potential mobility is therefore important in evaluating potential for and the impacts of re-purposing land for other end uses, which could include green spaces and urban housing.

Joanna Wragg, lead author, BGS.

 

The soil samples were part of BGS Geochemical Survey of Urban Environments (GSUE) project, an integral part of wider G-BASE and TellusNI programmes.

The geochemistry maps were superimposed onto the Ordnance Survey New Popular Edition historic map (one inch to one mile) of Stoke-on-Trent (1940s) using QGIS to visualise linkages between the industrial past and the spatial soil geochemistry of the area.