For centuries, Scotland identity has been closely linked to its stone-built heritage. Historic buildings provide not just a tangible link to the past, but are also a huge draw for millions of tourists from around the world — a vital source of income for the local economy.

Historic Environment Scotland (HES) cares for more than 300 monuments and buildings of national importance across Scotland, which need to be protected for everyone future enjoyment and education. Maintaining these structures is an exercise that requires engineering expertise, highly skilled artisans and access to materials that will mirror those that were available at the time of construction.

Scotland built environment is intrinsically linked to the ground below it, created from diverse geology extracted from over 3700 quarries. It is this geology and the methods used to quarry, process and build with stone that create a sense of place, from the red sandstones of Dumfries to the grey stone granite of Aberdeen.

A new report, conducted by BGS and commissioned by HES, has highlighted the increasing opportunity to bring indigenous stone, including sandstone and flagstone, igneous and metamorphic rocks and roofing slate, back to the Scottish market. The opportunities presented within the report highlight the building stones and quarries most crucial to ongoing efforts to maintain these historic buildings for future generations, as well as supporting the potential for new build applications to contribute to Scotland transition to net zero.

Researchers found that:

• the cost of imported stone construction materials has risen by up to 98 per cent since 2015, possibly due to increasing fuel prices and shipping costs
• the Scottish and UK construction industry is increasingly vulnerable to erratic pricing and market volatility, due to an over-reliance on imported materials
• increased ranges in stone production locally create a more resilient supply chain and provide assurance of supply
• 139 disused building stone quarries and 31 quarries that currently only supply crushed-stone aggregate may have the potential to supply a significant proportion of Scotland building stone needs

The dwindling supply of local materials to protect fundamental parts of Scottish history is placing unique pressures on those who wish to maintain and protect our traditional and historic buildings.

A renewed Scottish building stone market would not only create rural skilled jobs and reduce carbon emissions, but also improve conservation outcomes for our important historic buildings. With that in mind, indigenous stone suppliers are faced with increased pressures and costs that make them uncompetitive against cheaper imported materials.

The report demonstrates that Scotland is more than capable of being self-sufficient with regard to its building stone requirements going into the future; however, this will require investment and support through innovation in procurement.

Graham Briggs, materials project manager at HES.

The full report suggests how the supply and use of Scottish building stones can be increased in Scotland, including increasing production at active quarries that already supply building stone.

The report also contains a series of three factsheets, which found:

• over 5 million tonnes of building stone are imported into the UK each year
• sandstone is the UK most imported stone each year
• roofing slate imports command the highest price — Scotland is particularly vulnerable to this, with no current source of Scottish roofing slate
• the cost of imported stone has almost doubled since 2015

If Scotland wants to continue to build in its traditional stone, conserving heritage buildings and ensuring new builds are also in keeping with the historic landscape, then action needs to be taken to source more stone locally.

Our latest report is a vital resource for policymakers and potential investors, providing them with a clear snapshot of current supplies that will help them to identify opportunities for growth and better inform investment in indigenous building stone production.

Imogen Shaw, building stone scientist, BGS.

The full factsheet is now available to read: .

Contact

For more information, please contact contact the BGS Press Office (bgspress@bgs.ac.uk) or call 07790 607 010.

Throughout history, natural stone has been the material of choice for Scotland traditional and architecturally important buildings. The geological diversity of the country means the built heritage is unique and varied from place to place. 

Since 1835, BGS geologists have been collecting samples from building stone quarries all over the country and, in partnership with Historic Environment Scotland, we have just completed a major effort to photograph them. We hold over one thousand samples in the BGS Building Stone Collection; the images have been published on the and �ɱ�������ٱ��.��

The photos highlight the diversity of stone as a traditional building material in Scotland. Can you spot which stone your house, favourite building or local area is made from? 

We hope the database will be a useful resource for anyone studying or working on stone buildings in Scotland. If you’re interested in learning more about the project, please contact the building stones database team (stonedatabase@bgs.ac.uk).  

Timeline of Scottish building stones

Further information 

• The Engine Shed: Scotland’s Building Conservation Centre   
•  

History of the stone

The Stone of Scone (pronounced ‘skoon’), also known as the Stone of Destiny or, in England, the Coronation Stone, is a slab of sandstone upon which the monarchs of Scotland have been crowned since medieval times. Stories about its origin are shrouded in mystery; one says it is the Biblical Jacob Pillow; another has it being used by ancient tribes of Scots in County Antrim before being brought to Scotland and still another states it originally came from the Roman Antonine Wall.

What is known is that it was used as a crowning-seat for Scottish monarchs at Scone Palace in Perthshire between the 9th and 13th centuries, until it was stolen in 1296 by King Edward I of England, the ‘Hammer of the Scots’. He took the stone to Westminster in London and had it mounted in a wooden throne; since then, English monarchs would be crowned above the stone as a symbol of the dominion they claimed to have over Scotland. It was not returned to its homeland until 1996, where it now resides in Edinburgh Castle.

The Stone of Scone at BGS

The stories and myths around the Stone of Scone are well known, but what is less well known is that fact that BGS has a sample of it as part of its Scottish collections. According to BGS records, the sample was collected in the late 19th century by either Sir A C Ramsay or Sir J J H Teall, both of whom later became directors of the Geological Survey of Great Britain (now the 51����).

The entry in BGS collections register corresponds to this sample and an additional six microscope slides, labelled S17850 to S17855, and refers to them rather irreverently as ‘crumbs from the Stone of Scone’. The entry for sample S17855 states that it was added to the collection by Teall, with the clear implication that this applies to the other thin sections and the rock chips. These microscope slides may, collectively, be samples collected by Ramsay in 1865 and were later registered by Teall as part of BGS Scottish collection. Ramsay examined the stone in Westminster Abbey and described how he took a sample by sweeping its lower surface with a soft brush, detaching as many grains ‘as would cover a sixpence’.

The grain mount thin sections made from Ramsay samples were later examined by another BGS geologist, C F Davidson, in 1937. Davidson stated that the ‘microscopic preparations’ were obtained in 1892. It is possible that he confused the year in which the samples were registered (possibly 1892) with that in which they were originally collected (1865). The additional loose rock chips may have been collected separately, perhaps in 1892 by Teall, and given the same sample number as one of the original microscope slides.

The samples held by BGS are of a pale-pink sandstone that is lithologically similar to the Stone of Scone. Detailed analysis of the microscope slides in 1998 and the actual stone on its return to Scotland confirmed that it resembles the Lower Devonian sandstones from the Perth area. In particular, the texture, mineral assemblage and colour are similar to the Devonian sandstones of the that are exposed in the vicinity of Quarry Mill, near Scone Palace.

Is this the real Stone of Scone?

There has always been a question as to whether the stone now used in the coronation ceremony is the original, ‘real’ Stone of Scone. It was rumoured that the monks who guarded the stone at Scone Palace gave the English king a fake and that this is the stone that now sits in Edinburgh Castle. The stone was also stolen from Westminster Abbey in 1950 by a group of Scottish students, who hid it until 1951 when they handed themselves in and revealed the stone location. Rumours abounded again that they had returned a fake and that the real stone remains hidden away, adding another chapter to the stone mysterious history.

Is the Stone of Destiny upside down?

Examination of the Stone of Scone reveals that it is a single bed of cross-laminated sandstone. The cross-lamination was formed by sand waves moving across the bed of an ancient Devonian river that once flowed across central Scotland. The curved shapes of the sedimentary structures shows that the smooth, upper surface of the stone was the original base of the sandstone bed and the ‘base’ of the stone, which has been left uneven and unworked, is the irregular top of the sandstone bed. Geologically speaking, the Stone of Destiny is indeed ‘upside down’, possibly because the base of the sandstone bed was smoother and much easier for the original stone mason to work to provide the required flat surface.

The coronation of King Charles III

In May 2023 the Stone of Scone will once again travel south to Westminster, where it will be installed in the coronation chair that King Charles III will sit in when he is crowned in Westminster Abbey. After this it will return to Scotland once more to await the coronation of the next monarch of the United Kingdom.

About the authors

A recent study by the 51����, in association with researchers at the University of Leicester, has delved into the bone and tooth chemistry of King Richard III and uncovered fascinating new details about the life and diet of Britain last Plantagenet king. The study, published in Elsevier indicates a change in diet and location in his early childhood, and in later life, a diet filled with expensive, high status food and drink. This forensic study, the most complete to have been conducted on a medieval monarch, will feature in a documentary, Richard III: The New Evidence, airing on Channel 4 on Sunday 17 August at 21:00.

Isotope analysis of bone and tooth material from King Richard III has revealed previously unknown details of his early life and the change in his diet when he became King two years and two months before he was killed at the Battle of Bosworth. The research examines the changes in chemistry found in the teeth, the femur and the rib; all of which develop and rebuild at different stages of life.

Isotope measurements that relate to geographical location, pollution and diet (strontium, nitrogen, oxygen, carbon and lead) were analysed in three locations on the skeleton of Richard III. The teeth, which form in childhood, confirmed that Richard had moved from Fotheringay castle in eastern England by the time he was seven. The data suggest that during this time he was in an area of higher rainfall, older rocks and with a changed diet relative to his place of birth in Northamptonshire. By examining the femur, which represents an average of the 15 years before death, researchers show that Richard moved back to eastern England as an adolescent or young adult, and had a diet that matched the highest aristocracy.

The third location, the rib, renews itself relatively quickly, so it only represents between 2 and 5 years of life before death. Data from the isotopes in this bone indicate the greatest change in diet. Although an alteration in the chemistry between the femur and the rib of Richard III could indicate relocation, historical records show that Richard did not move from the east of England in the 2 years prior to his death when he was King. As such, this chemical change is more likely to represent a change in diet relating to his period as King. The difference suggests an increase in consumption of freshwater fish and birds, which were popular additions to royal banquets at the time and included birds such as swan, crane, heron and egret. In addition, the bone chemistry suggests he was drinking more wine during his short reign as King and reinforces the idea that food and drink were strongly linked to social status in Medieval England.

“The chemistry of Richard III teeth and bones reveal changes in his geographical movements, diet and social status throughout his life.”

Dr Angela Lamb, Isotope Geochemist and lead author

Richard Buckley from the University of Leicester Archaeological Services and lead archaeologist in the Richard III dig, said:

“This cutting edge research has provided a unique opportunity to shed new light on the diet and environment of a major historical figure –Richard III. It is very rare indeed in archaeology to be able to identify a named individual with precise dates and a documented life.

“This has enabled the stable-isotope analysis to show how his environment changed at different times in his life and, perhaps most significantly, identified marked changes in his diet when he became king in 1483. “

• The Dig for Richard III was led by the University of Leicester, working with Leicester City Council and in association with the Richard III Society. The originator of the Search project was Philippa Langley of the Richard III Society.

Study: “Multi-isotope analysis demonstrates significant lifestyle changes in King Richard III” by Angela L. Lamb, Jane E. Evans, Richard Buckley, Jo Appleby (); Journal of Archaeological Science, published by Elsevier.

Until the embargo lifts, copies of this paper are available to credentialed journalists upon request; please contact Elsevier Newsroom at newsroom@elsevier.com or +31 20 4853564.
After 00:01 Sunday 17th August BST the paper will be published open access and will be available for all on ScienceDirect.