51���� and the Icelandic Geological Survey (ÍSOR) have been awarded an to assess Iceland offshore geological and geomorphological landscapes for the suitability of windfarms. The grant enables BGS scientists to share their experience in , as well as working with wind developments.��

Iceland fulfils its primary energy consumption with around 100 per cent renewable energy, via geothermal and hydro energy. Nowadays, there is a strong motivation to increase the country energy mix and energy security via wind power. Geology underpins the appropriate placement and foundation design for wind turbine structures. The NERC grant, which is supported by the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, aims to facilitate knowledge sharing between BGS and ÍSOR about the geological classification of the seabed and subsurface, as well as the potential impacts on foundation design. 

To help facilitate this partnership, Anett Blischke, a senior geoscientist at ÍSOR, led a week-long field trip in Iceland. Participants from BGS included Nicola Dakin, Andrew Finlayson, Dayton Dove and Duncan Stevens, who were joined by ISOR Árni Magnússon, Steinunn Hauksdóttir and Ögmundur Erlendsson, alongside Sigurður Friðleifsson from the National Energy Authority of Iceland (Orkustofnun).  

Visiting Iceland presented a fantastic opportunity to see excellent analogue sites onshore that are often present in the UK offshore environment, such as glacial landforms and deposits. The field visits allowed us to discuss these sites, including the glacial moraine complex of �����ð����á�������Ի�ܰ�, how geoscience fits into the offshore wind development process in Iceland and its opportunities and challenges. 

Visit to the British Embassy 

The team was also invited to the British Embassy in Reykjavk to discuss the goals of the project. Embassy staff were eager to hear about the project goals and future collaborations around geology and renewables. During the visit and in her role as task lead of the Geological Service for Europe ‘Optimised windfarm siting’ work package, Nicola Dakin highlighted the benefits of the first deliverable to the European Commission: using the new ‘Geo-Assessment Matrix’, which will develop the first draft geological complexity maps offshore Iceland and European waters. Utilising existing datasets, such as , the maps aim to serve as a first-pass assessment showing areas that have low to high geological complexity. The maps will also highlight areas that require new data acquisition where the geology is unknown. 

Fieldwork 

The team then travelled east to Landsvirkjun, the state-owned energy utility company, at ��ú���ڱ����, which is an onshore wind turbine test site consisting of two turbines that have been in situ since 2012. Here, Landsvirkjun has been testing the development of onshore wind potential, using the powerful and persistent winds in the Icelandic highlands. Environmental impact assessments have been important to ensure that the effects on the area are minimised and a 200 MW windfarm has received development approval. 

The field trip continued along south Iceland coastal ribbon, where the team observed active volcanic, tectonic, sedimentary and glacial processes, the effects of sea level changes, and geohazards. Such onshore analogues are critical to understanding the geological processes found in offshore environments. Starting in the west, at Stokkseyri, and travelling to Jökulsárlón (‘Diamond Beach’) in the east, the team visited a range of geological outcrops and sites highlighting the variety of tectonic, sedimentary and volcanic challenges.  

South Iceland offers a variety of geological features that can be studied to better understand the offshore environment: variable topography, ancient lava flows and glacial landforms tens of metres high. Understanding depositional environments, such as those around �����Բ��ڱ��������ö��ܱ���, is key to understanding their effects on sedimentology and any possible engineering implications in advance of foundation design and installation. 

The final study location of Melasveit consists of an outcrop near Akranes, north-west of Reykjavk. The locality exposes ancient glaciotectonised sediments in a cliff section along the beach (Sigfúsdóttir et al., 2018). This cross-section is an excellent analogue to the lateral and vertical heterogeneity, and possible geotechnical impacts, of glaciotectonised sediments, which are also observed in windfarm sites the North Sea. 

The final, fortuitous and (naturally) most spectacular geological phenomenon was a visit to the fissure eruption that began during our visit on 22 August 2024 near the Blue Lagoon and the Svartsengi geothermal energy plant. Icelandic authorities closed the roads to protect people; however, the eruption and lava flows can be observed safely from the roadside.  

Future collaboration 

Iceland is a country full of opportunity regarding offshore wind potential. The geohazards and geological constraints in the offshore environment require a full assessment to better understand the influence on foundation types and design. BGS openly welcomes ÍSOR and Orkustofnun for further workshops and continuing our collaboration in the future. 

More information 

Field guide 

A summarising the visited sites is available online. 

References 

Sigfúsdóttir, T, Benediktsson, Í Ö, and Phillips, E. 2018. . Boreas, Vol. 47(3), 813–836. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bor.12306;

Loch Lomond is a freshwater lake at the heart of the Loch Lomond and Trossachs National Park in the south-west highlands of Scotland. It is surrounded by beautiful landscapes and vistas influenced by past ice ages.  

Using seismic data, marine geoscientists at BGS have discovered a new sedimentary unit buried in deposits beneath the loch, giving new insights into its past glacial history.

Scotland in the last ice age

Much of the highlands of Scotland were covered by an extensive mountain ice cap 12 900 to 11 700 years ago, during the last period of cold climate (known as the Younger Dryas or the Loch Lomond Stadial). Decades of onshore research have shown how past ice ages have shaped the landscape of Loch Lomond, including carving of the present-day loch itself and its surroundings through processes such as erosion and deposition. However, this new dataset provides an interpretation of the stratigraphy now buried beneath the loch.

Mapping the loch bed and subsurface features

51���� used multibeam bathymetry surveys to gather detailed information about the features on the loch bed. The data revealed a series of flat-topped and prograding features (or the growth of a river delta further out into the sea over time) and ancient glacial geomorphological features. These features include drumlins, which are oval-shaped hills largely composed of glacial drift that form parallel to the direction of ice flow, and streamlined bedrock, created by glacial restructuring of hard beds that produces a collection of extended rock landforms, interpreted as showing the direction of the palaeo-ice advance.

It been incredibly exciting to have had the opportunity to interpret these datasets and present the loch surface and subsurface in a way we’ve never seen before. The seismic mapping and interpretation of the Inchmurrin Formation helps us understand past landscapes and geological events that are now buried under the loch bed. We are keen to undertake further research in and around the area, building on the seismostratigraphical framework that we observe in Loch Lomond.

Nicola Dakin, BGS marine geoscientist.

51���� geoscientists used seismic data to map the subsurface of the loch. Seismic data uses sound waves, which travel through buried layers of sediment, forming an acoustic image based on density variations between different sediment types. We interpreted the acoustic signature, linking sedimentary processes and depositional environments to past climatic cycles. This provided a framework to create an updated chronostratigraphy within the loch.

What did the survey reveal?

• during glacier advance associated with the cold Younger Dryas climate, glacial landforms were shaped underneath the ice; these can now be identified at the base of the sedimentary succession, up to 60 m below the loch bed surface
• as the ice retreated, vast volumes of water and sediment were released into the loch, leaving a sequence of layered sediments up to 44 m thick
• immediately after deglaciation of the area, exposure of steep loch margins likely resulted in landslides into the loch, producing a unit that is shown as a transparent layer in the seismic data and can represent up to 50 per cent of the sediment fill in places — we have named this new unit the ‘Inchmurrin Formation’
• as the climate transitioned from the early Holocene to the present day, a final phase of lacustrine sedimentation followed, depositing up to 127 m of the youngest, layered, grey-brown lake sediments

Global value of this work

Work is continuing to build understanding of other lochs in the area. The Loch Lomond dataset is a valuable resource that could enable BGS to offer insights into the extent and rates of landscape adjustment that accompanied the transition from glacial to non-glacial conditions. Such findings are of global importance when considering landscape stability and potential future geohazards in regions that are undergoing rapid deglaciation, such as around the European Alps, Himalayas and New Zealand Southern Alps.

About the author

In early September 2022, eight geologists from different disciplines across BGS completed the applied glacial geology field-based training course in north Norfolk, led by ���ҳ� Emrys Phillips and Jonathan Lee. The course benefits geoscientists working on applied projects where glacial geology will affect ground conditions and properties of the shallow subsurface, such as offshore windfarms.

During the course we visited Sheringham, West and East Runton, Happisburgh and Weybourne. We were able to develop skills to describe and interpret glacial sediments and deformed materials, and their influence on ground conditions both on and offshore.

Day 1: Happisburgh and Weybourne

On the first training day, we drove to Happisburgh. We were lucky with the weather not only on the first day but also throughout the field course. With a beautiful sea view, Emrys and Jon introduced us to the topic of glacial geology and explained the history of coastal erosion at the site. At Happisburgh, we examined several cliff sections through the , the Ostend Clay Member and the .

In the afternoon we drove up the coast to Weybourne, where we encountered the , which overlies bedrock. The shallow marine sands and gravels of the Wroxham Crag directly overlie a brecciated chalk unit, which exhibits evidence of periglacial features such as frost heave, soft-sediment deformation and hydrofracturing.

Day 2: East Runton and the West Runton Mammoth

On Day 2, we visited East Runton, where we learned more about glacitectonic chalk rafts (massive blocks of glacially displaced chalk bedrock), their direction of emplacement and the development of ice-marginal sand basins. We also examined the preglacial deposits that are exposed to the east of West Runton, including the Wroxham Crag Formation (shallow marine) and the West Runton Freshwater Bed, which is an organic deposit. Since the 19th century, the latter has become well-renowned with amateur and professional fossil collectors, because it yields both floral and faunal fossil remains and provides much information on the climate and environment during a preglacial interglacial period. The remains of the world-famous West Runton Mammoth were also discovered at the site in the early 1990s.

Day 3: West Runton

On the third day, we visited the coastal section to the west of West Runton, where we continued to learn about chalk raft emplacement and preglacial and glacial stratigraphy and started to think about how glaciers interact with sediments beneath and in front of them. Cliff sections at West Runton record the transition from proglacial through ice-marginal to subglacial environments, which produces distinctive styles of sedimentation and deformation. We also compared the resultant glacitectonic mélange and structure to interpreted seismic cross-sections from the Dogger Bank area of the North Sea, which shows similar features offshore.

Day 4: Sheringham and Skelding Hill

Our fourth and final day started off dry and bright as we started with an ascent of Skelding Hill, which offers a stunning panoramic viewpoint of the coastline between Cromer and Weybourne. From our vantage point, we were able to get a better view of the geomorphology of the area, helping us piece together the broader glacial history.

We then walked down the hill to the beach, where we found some natural beach analogues in the sand that we were able to relate to the glacial activity, including a miniature braided river system.

We walked along the coast to the see the cliff face directly under the summit of Skelding Hill. Here we split into teams and were set challenges to describe the structural geology, geomorphology and unitisation of the glacial sediments we could see in the cliff face.

In the afternoon, we had to dodge several very dramatic-looking rainstorms. However, they quickly passed and this meant members of the team could enjoy a quick pasty and cake in one of Sheringham local bakeries. At the end of the day, Jon and Emrys provided a summary of the week and presented a geological model for the history and direction of glaciation in north Norfolk. All members of the team thoroughly enjoyed the trip and look forward to applying our new skills going forward!

This course was one of many scientific and technical support activities funded and organised by BGS Learning and Development.

About the authors

A paper marking the culmination of a highly successful project into a former ice sheet is helping researchers to understand more about the north-west European continental shelf. It’s also helping improve forecasting for the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets.

The five-year, £3.7 million BRITICE-CHRONO consortium, funded by NERC, took on the most ambitious geochronological project yet, encompassing on- and offshore mapping around the UK and Ireland to better describe and understand the growth and decay of the last British–Irish ice sheet.

BRITICE research included 1500 days of field investigation yielding 18 000 km of marine geophysical data, 377 cores of sea-floor sediment and geomorphological and stratigraphical information at over one hundred sites on land. This enabled the generation of 690 new geochronometric ages, which were collected to understand the timings, coverage and retreat of the British–Irish ice sheet and to provide a geochronological framework between 31 000 and 15 000 years ago.

The findings bear a strong similarity to the dynamics and evolving configuration in the Antarctic today, enabling scientists to refine and improve current ice sheet modelling approaches. It will also aid researchers investigating regional palaeoenvironments as well as those working on offshore development (e.g. offshore renewables) and marine management.

51���� is proud to have played a role in this important project. The paper compiles and distils many of the detailed findings from the onshore work and offshore transects of the project and will serve as a useful resource to inform and expand on current knowledge on the evolution of the British–Irish ice sheet.

Dayton Dove, BGS Marine Geoscientist.��

51���� scientists participated in and contributed to the project by providing expertise, data and information to support planning, implementation and interpretation of survey and project results. The offshore coring was also carried out by BGS engineering teams.

Two reconstructions of the ice sheet were developed: an empirical version and one that combines modelling and the new empirical evidence. Palaeoglaciological maps of ice extent, thickness, velocity and flow geometry at thousand-year time intervals were also produced.

The paper, , was published in BOREAS.

At the beginning of July 2021, the SUN-SPEARS project team embarked on its first fieldwork trip to Spitsbergen, the biggest island of the Svalbard archipelago in the Arctic Ocean. Electronic and instrumentation engineer Harry Harrison and I, waving the BGS flag, were lucky enough to be part of this contingent of researchers made up of biologists, environmental engineers and geophysicists.

Our ambition is to study the evolution of newly emerging soils uncovered by retreating glaciers. In order to achieve this, we installed an array of geophysical sensors on a glacier forefield at two different locations over soils of five and fifty years of age. We also collected a range of soil samples that will tell us more about the local biodiversity and how this varies between soils of different ages.

Ny-Ålesund research settlement

Located at a latitude of 79°N, Ny-Ålesund was our home for three weeks. It is a former mining town that is now dedicated entirely to Arctic research. The Governor of Svalbard, through Kings Bay company, operates the logistics behind the research stations, which belong to various countries including Norway, UK, France, Germany, Korea and Japan. Unfortunately, the pandemic prohibited the UK station from opening this year, but we were kindly hosted by our friends at Sverdrup, the Norwegian station. They provided valuable instructions, directions and, most importantly, radio communication.

While out in the field we were in constant contact with the lookout on duty, who was responsible for letting us know of any potential dangers on site. This proved to be essential on one of our days out, when we had the exciting yet slightly terrifying experience of being notified that a mama polar bear and her two cubs were taking a break from their journey around the fjord and were right in our way back to town. Binoculars allowed us to spot them quite quickly and, with eyes on them at all times, we returned safe and sound by taking a substantial detour through the rolling moraines.

The Midtre Lovénbreen glacier

Towering near our fieldsite stands the very impressive glacier Midtre Lovénbreen (ML). It has lost almost one kilometre, a fifth of its maximum length, over the past 90 years due to global warming. It has left behind a large moraine dominated by glaciofluvial debris. Despite looking like a desolated, frozen land, among the loose rocks and sediments we were able to find soil. This is a mark of change, a mark of a new Arctic environment in the making, and it is precisely this soil formation and evolution that we are so curious about.

Sensor installations

We left an array of electrodes and other soil sensors in the ground that will record soil temperature, moisture content and electrical resistivity. These parameters will give us an indication of how soil properties change on the moraine across the different seasons. For example, it will enable us to understand how quickly the soil freezing front progresses once subjected to below-zero air temperatures or how quickly the spring snow-melt infiltrates. Until now, this was unknown to the scientific community, researchers being unable to access these Arctic field sites in the winter due to the very harsh weather conditions.   

We have left our instruments behind to measure for a whole year. Their batteries will hopefully be kept alive by the wind turbine and solar panel we also installed. With a bit of luck, we will find them as they are now when we return next summer, holding some very precious data that may be the key to uncovering some of the Arctic secrets.

About the author