Artificial ground is found throughout the country in a variety of places, for example:

• railway and road cuttings and embankments
• foundations under buildings
• the waste and voids from surface and underground mining
• roads
• landscaped parks and golf courses

51���� has been creating national geological maps for nearly 200 years and often these maps are the only record of ground being altered by humans.

We are in the process of developing new methods for capturing and representing artificial ground information and we want to ensure that this is as useful and beneficial as possible to the stakeholder community.

Why do we want your feedback?

The aim of this survey is to gain an understanding from you, our stakeholders, about the types of data that are used regularly, why you need that data, and what decisions are made using the data. Mapping of artificial ground is not easy and everyone treats these deposits differently. By providing a standardised method of collecting and displaying artificial ground data there is significant potential to improve the communication of these features.

Interested in getting involved?

We have put together a short survey that aims to capture your thoughts and processes when working with artificial ground data. We value your input and would appreciate you completing this short questionnaire, providing as much context as possible.

Survey deadline extended to 28th November 2025.

51���� and the Icelandic Geological Survey (ÍSOR) have been awarded an to assess Iceland offshore geological and geomorphological landscapes for the suitability of windfarms. The grant enables BGS scientists to share their experience in , as well as working with wind developments.��

Iceland fulfils its primary energy consumption with around 100 per cent renewable energy, via geothermal and hydro energy. Nowadays, there is a strong motivation to increase the country energy mix and energy security via wind power. Geology underpins the appropriate placement and foundation design for wind turbine structures. The NERC grant, which is supported by the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, aims to facilitate knowledge sharing between BGS and ÍSOR about the geological classification of the seabed and subsurface, as well as the potential impacts on foundation design. 

To help facilitate this partnership, Anett Blischke, a senior geoscientist at ÍSOR, led a week-long field trip in Iceland. Participants from BGS included Nicola Dakin, Andrew Finlayson, Dayton Dove and Duncan Stevens, who were joined by ISOR Árni Magnússon, Steinunn Hauksdóttir and Ögmundur Erlendsson, alongside Sigurður Friðleifsson from the National Energy Authority of Iceland (Orkustofnun).  

Visiting Iceland presented a fantastic opportunity to see excellent analogue sites onshore that are often present in the UK offshore environment, such as glacial landforms and deposits. The field visits allowed us to discuss these sites, including the glacial moraine complex of �����ð����á�������Ի�ܰ�, how geoscience fits into the offshore wind development process in Iceland and its opportunities and challenges. 

Visit to the British Embassy 

The team was also invited to the British Embassy in Reykjavk to discuss the goals of the project. Embassy staff were eager to hear about the project goals and future collaborations around geology and renewables. During the visit and in her role as task lead of the Geological Service for Europe ‘Optimised windfarm siting’ work package, Nicola Dakin highlighted the benefits of the first deliverable to the European Commission: using the new ‘Geo-Assessment Matrix’, which will develop the first draft geological complexity maps offshore Iceland and European waters. Utilising existing datasets, such as , the maps aim to serve as a first-pass assessment showing areas that have low to high geological complexity. The maps will also highlight areas that require new data acquisition where the geology is unknown. 

Fieldwork 

The team then travelled east to Landsvirkjun, the state-owned energy utility company, at ��ú���ڱ����, which is an onshore wind turbine test site consisting of two turbines that have been in situ since 2012. Here, Landsvirkjun has been testing the development of onshore wind potential, using the powerful and persistent winds in the Icelandic highlands. Environmental impact assessments have been important to ensure that the effects on the area are minimised and a 200 MW windfarm has received development approval. 

The field trip continued along south Iceland coastal ribbon, where the team observed active volcanic, tectonic, sedimentary and glacial processes, the effects of sea level changes, and geohazards. Such onshore analogues are critical to understanding the geological processes found in offshore environments. Starting in the west, at Stokkseyri, and travelling to Jökulsárlón (‘Diamond Beach’) in the east, the team visited a range of geological outcrops and sites highlighting the variety of tectonic, sedimentary and volcanic challenges.  

South Iceland offers a variety of geological features that can be studied to better understand the offshore environment: variable topography, ancient lava flows and glacial landforms tens of metres high. Understanding depositional environments, such as those around �����Բ��ڱ��������ö��ܱ���, is key to understanding their effects on sedimentology and any possible engineering implications in advance of foundation design and installation. 

The final study location of Melasveit consists of an outcrop near Akranes, north-west of Reykjavk. The locality exposes ancient glaciotectonised sediments in a cliff section along the beach (Sigfúsdóttir et al., 2018). This cross-section is an excellent analogue to the lateral and vertical heterogeneity, and possible geotechnical impacts, of glaciotectonised sediments, which are also observed in windfarm sites the North Sea. 

The final, fortuitous and (naturally) most spectacular geological phenomenon was a visit to the fissure eruption that began during our visit on 22 August 2024 near the Blue Lagoon and the Svartsengi geothermal energy plant. Icelandic authorities closed the roads to protect people; however, the eruption and lava flows can be observed safely from the roadside.  

Future collaboration 

Iceland is a country full of opportunity regarding offshore wind potential. The geohazards and geological constraints in the offshore environment require a full assessment to better understand the influence on foundation types and design. BGS openly welcomes ÍSOR and Orkustofnun for further workshops and continuing our collaboration in the future. 

More information 

Field guide 

A summarising the visited sites is available online. 

References 

Sigfúsdóttir, T, Benediktsson, Í Ö, and Phillips, E. 2018. . Boreas, Vol. 47(3), 813–836. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bor.12306;

Debris flows are landslide hazard that are of particular concern to transport infrastructure managers and local authorities. They occur when poorly sorted debris mixed with water rapidly flow downslope and are potentially very destructive. Debris flows can cause considerable disruption and financial loss, particularly for owners or managers of infrastructure assets (for example  road or rail), utilities or property. With increases in rainfall combined with dry weather anticipated, the (2021) specifically highlights future risks to transport networks from slope and embankment failure, particularly on routes in more rural areas of the UK that follow natural features such as steep-sided valleys.

In response to increasing demand for knowledge about where debris flows may potentially occur in Great Britain, BGS  developed  a debris flow susceptibility model for Great Britain (BGS DFSM-GB), which has been updated recently. This dataset is designed for those interested specifically in debris flow susceptibility at a regional or national planning scale, such as those involved in construction or maintenance of infrastructure networks (road, rail or utilities), other asset managers, loss adjusters, surveyors or local government.

Armed with knowledge about potential debris flows, preventative steps can be put in place to alleviate the impact of the hazard to people and assets.

About debris flow hazards

Debris flows are a widespread phenomenon in mountainous terrain. They are distinct from other types of landslides as they can occur periodically on established paths, usually gullies or existing drainage channels. Periods of prolonged and intense rainfall are a common trigger for this type of hazard and, with changes in seasonal UK precipitation patterns generally accepted as a likely consequence of ongoing climate change, the magnitude and frequency of debris flows are likely to change.

In Great Britain, most disruptive debris flow events are recorded on the Scottish road and rail network. For example, the A83 ‘Rest and Be Thankful’ Pass suffers regular blockages and closures and, although event magnitudes are usually relatively small, the disruption caused can have significant economic effects. The pass is a strategic link road to the Kintyre peninsula and other remote regions of western Scotland, and regular closures force a 55-mile diversion. A study, ‘’, suggests that the direct and indirect economic effects of a single event there in 2007 were estimated at £1.2 million over a 15-day closure.

Real-life incidents

As well as issues such as economic costs and inconvenience caused by disruption to travel networks, debris flows pose a threat to public safety. Near-miss examples highlight the dangers this landslide hazard poses. In August 2004, two debris flows blocked the A85 in Glen Ogle, stranding 57 people between them, some of whom required rescue via airlift. In June 2012, a debris flow blocked a railway near Loch Trieg; it was struck by a freight engine resulting in derailment of the engine and injury to the driver.A similar incident occurred in January 2018, when after hitting a debris flow deposit.

About the dataset

Despite debris flows being relatively commonplace throughout upland regions of Great Britain, previous debris flow susceptibility assessments and modelling efforts by BGS had focused on Scotland. This new debris flow susceptibility model contains newly acquired data and more accurately calculated parameters.

As the national geological survey for Great Britain, our stakeholders were interested in a regional-scale susceptibility assessment of this potential hazard for other parts of the country besides Scotland. In response to this, we developed a debris flow susceptibility model in 2017 for the whole of Great Britain, building on research conducted over the previous 15 years, using the most recent data holdings available to us. When BGS acquired a new 5m national coverage digital terrain model in 2021, we incorporated it into a new debris flow susceptibility model, which calculates slope measurements and channels more accurately.

Catherine Pennington, BGS Engineering Geologist and landslide specialist.

The BGS DFSM-GB (v6.1) is a 1:50 000-scale raster dataset of Great Britain, providing 50 m ground resolution information on potential for a debris flow to be initiated given the ground conditions present. The product is supplied as an additional layer alongside the 51���� GeoSure landslides product.

The BGS DFSM-GB represents an interpretation of where debris flows could occur given natural (rather than anthropogenic) geological, hydrogeological and geomorphological properties determined by geological experts and identified through the underpinning data. It was designed to identify potential source areas for debris flows rather than identify the locations where material may be deposited.

Claire Dashwood, BGS Engineering Geohazards Geologist.

Elements considered in the model include properties and characteristics of geological materials (permeability, material availability and characteristics when weathered), slope angle and proximity to stream channels as indicators of susceptibility. Building on existing knowledge, the model also considers the presence or absence of glacial scouring which, where present, can greatly reduce the material available to flow.

Comparison of the BGS DFSM-GB against mapped debris flow occurrences from within the 51���� National Landslide Database at the time of publication showed that 90 per cent of debris flows in the inventory occurred in the areas the model had identified as having high potential for instability.

Contact

For more details on this dataset, as well as a case study detailing its use in a national assessment of landslide hazards for the rail network of Great Britain, please consult the debris flow susceptibility model product user guide. If you have any further questions, do not hesitate to contact the team.

Engineering geologists do not just bridge the gap between earth sciences and engineering but have an essential role to play in meeting the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), by geologists at Arup and BGS highlights.

Crucially, their knowledge, skills and understanding around the interfaces between science and engineering and the natural and built environments past, present and future mean that engineering geologists offer a unique perspective to help build resilience to natural hazards, solve environmental problems caused by human activities and reduce the cost and risk of building and infrastructure construction.

Engineering geologists and, more broadly, geoscientists possess deep domain knowledge of natural systems and processes that makes them very well placed to tackle both environmental and socio-economic challenges covered by the UN SDGs.

Despite their unique skills and knowledge, geoscientists have historically been underrepresented in the global debate on sustainable development.

A significant opportunity therefore exists for geoscientists and engineering geologists especially to increase their influence and enhance their impact.

Marcus Dobbs, senior engineering geologist at BGS and contributor to the study.

To fully understand the current contribution of engineering geologists to the UN SDGs and where this could be enhanced, scientists at and BGS undertook a mapping exercise to systematically review all 169 SDG targets and related indicators against typical engineering geology knowledge, skills and activities.

They concluded that engineering geology knowledge, skills and activities can be linked (directly or indirectly) to 107 of the 169 targets (63 per cent).

Engineering geology makes the strongest overall contribution to 5 of the 17 SDGs: 

• SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy): linked to 100percent of targets
• SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure): linked to 88percent of targets
• SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production): linked to 82percent of targets
• SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities): linked to 80percent of targets
• SDG 13 (climate action): linked to 80percent of targets

The mapping exercise shows that engineering geologists clearly have an important role to play in achieving sustainable development globally, primarily through their role in infrastructure development, building resilience and disaster risk reduction and environmental protection as well as in building equitable communities and through collaborative and strong partnerships.

For over 20 years, 51���� engineering geology research has:

• generated a wealth of data and information on the properties and behaviour of geological formations that are strategically important to critical infrastructure development in the UK
• undertaken research to enhance societal resilience to shallow geohazards by developing and communicating a better understanding of their distribution, character, susceptibility and triggering, and potential impacts, with much of this research specifically focused on landslides and landslide processes both in the UK and internationally
• made significant advances in the field of urban geoscience to specifically support decision makers in the planning and construction sector to optimise the use of the subsurface to make cities and communities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
• contributed to the developed national-scale engineering geology and geohazard datasets to support sustainable and resilient land use, planning and development

In addition to the existing contribution of engineering geology to the SDGs, the Arup and BGS study also identified opportunities for engineering geologists to strengthen contribution to all 17 of the UN SDGs, with the greatest of these being to:

• SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy): 100percent of targets were identified;
• SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production): 55percent of targets were identified
• SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions): 50percent of targets were identified
• SDG 17 (partnerships for the goals): 41percent of targets were identified

These opportunities include:

• extending influence across the project life cycle and to policymaking
• greater consideration of options for decarbonisation
• the impacts of climate change
• the value of geocapital and geodiversity
• training in geoethics
• a greater emphasis on diversity, inclusion and equity within the profession
• increased collaboration and knowledge sharing globally through cross- and multidisciplinary partnerships, and between industry and academia

In recent years, engineering geologists within BGS have been engaged in a range of multidisciplinary research studies to address some of these challenges, including:

• building multidisciplinary, international partnerships to and help inform risk management in the context of sustainable development
• exploring the application of shallow geothermal energy technologies for both heating and cooling
• the potential for
• assessing potential viability of for carbon capture and sequestration
• examining the physical properties and behaviour of geological materials to inform the development of the
• identifying and characterising marine geohazards and marine geohazard processes to support the development of large-scale offshore wind-farms
• working with industry and academia, through the Engineering Group of the Geological Society, to document and publicise for offshore exploration, survey and development

We hope these findings will enable and empower engineering geologists globally to better communicate the value of their contribution to society, the environment and the economy and identify opportunities to increase that impact.

Marcus Dobbs.

51���� is keen to broaden its research partnerships to include a greater diversity of collaborators and stakeholders from government, academia, industry and the not-for-profit sectors. Anyone interested in working with BGS on sustainable engineering geology research can contact Marcus Dobbs.

The 51���� (BGS), in joint partnership with global offshore geoscience and geotechnical engineering consultancy Cathie, has been awarded a contract to develop a ground model for the front-end engineering design (FEED) of two offshore wind farms.

51���� and Cathie will develop a dynamic, regional ground model which will be used to mitigate seabed risk and drive the engineering and development options for the projects. The modelling will provide an invaluable insight into the geological hazards and conditions of the past that could have a bearing on the development.

The wind farm developers are Marr Bank Wind Limited and Berwick Bank Wind Limited, subsidiaries of SSE Renewables. The proposed site of the Marr and Berwick Bank Wind Farms is located off the east coast of Scotland, where the Firth of Forth opens into the Central North Sea, which has been subjected to multiple glacial and interglacial cycles during the last 2.59 million years.��

Cathie Newcastle-based team will lead the project and work together with BGS geoscientists based at the Lyell Centre in Edinburgh, to provide a complete solution for the regional ground model, integrating geology, geophysics and geotechnics.

51���� has a track record of reconstruction of past environments as well as an extensive knowledge of the geological history of the area. Cathie will bring their insight in the development, engineering and construction of offshore wind farms, in addition to a decade of geoscience and geotechnical engineering experience on Seagreen Alpha and Bravo, immediately north of the modelling area.

51���� is delighted to have been awarded this important contract jointly with Cathie. Our combined expertise in this area will ensure that that the windfarm project is a success structurally while also supporting the continued development of renewable energy in Scotland.

Dr Tracy Shimmield, BGS and Director of the Lyell Centre

This collaboration between Cathie and BGS offers a unique combination of best-in-class understanding of the geological formation and shaping of the Firth of Forth Zone with specific understanding of the influence the geological context has on geotechnical engineering for offshore wind farm infrastructure, thanks to our 75GW experience of offshore wind projects worldwide and experience in the Seagreen zone.

Gareth Ellery, Cathie Business Development Director

The detailed regional ground model developed by the joint team will be used to inform subsequent geotechnical survey campaign strategies and provide the basis upon which geotechnical designs for the two sites can be developed going forward.

Once complete, the installed capacity of Berwick Bank is proposed to be 2.3GW and Marr Bank proposed capacity is between 900 MW and 1.85GW.